IoT DNS Security and Privacy Guidelines
draft-ietf-iotops-iot-dns-guidelines-00

iotops                                                         A. Mishra
Internet-Draft                                                     Inria
Intended status: Best Current Practice                          A. Losty
Expires: 24 May 2026                                     A. M. Mandalari
                                                                     UCL
                                                               J. Mozley
                                                                Infoblox
                                                               M. Cunche
                                                                   Inria
                                                        20 November 2025

                IoT DNS Security and Privacy Guidelines
                draft-ietf-iotops-iot-dns-guidelines-00

Abstract

   This document outlines best current practices for Internet of Things
   (IoT) device providers regarding the implementation of DNS stub
   resolvers, with the aim of mitigating security threats, enhancing
   privacy, and resolving operational challenges.  It also provides
   guidelines for network operators on mitigating the risks identified
   in this draft.

About This Document

   This note is to be removed before publishing as an RFC.

   The latest revision of this draft can be found at
   https://miishra.github.io/IoT-DNS-Guidelines/draft-mishra-iotops-iot-
   dns-guidelines-latest.html.  Status information for this document may
   be found at https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-ietf-iotops-iot-
   dns-guidelines/.

   Source for this draft and an issue tracker can be found at
   https://github.com/miishra/IoT-DNS-Guidelines.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

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   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
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   This Internet-Draft will expire on 24 May 2026.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2025 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
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   Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
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   provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
   2.  Conventions and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   3.  Recommendations for IoT Device Stub Resolvers . . . . . . . .   4
     3.1.  Compliance with Encrypted DNS Standards . . . . . . . . .   4
     3.2.  Configuration of DNS servers used by IoT Stub
           Resolvers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
     3.3.  Source Port and Transaction ID Randomization  . . . . . .   5
     3.4.  Handling of TTL Values  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5
     3.5.  Support of EDNS(0)  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     3.6.  Improve Device Behavior in Response to Resolution
           Problems  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     3.7.  Use of DNSSEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
       3.7.1.  Resolver Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
       3.7.2.  Full Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
   4.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   5.  IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   6.  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
     6.1.  Normative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
     6.2.  Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
   Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12

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1.  Introduction

   Research into the DNS behavior of IoT devices shows widespread non-
   compliance with protocol standards, gaps in protocol support, and
   security vulnerabilities.  This leads to unpredictable operational
   behavior and exposes devices to fingerprinting and denial-of-service
   attacks.

   While the recommendations in this BCP may apply to all DNS stub
   resolver behavior, we treat IoT devices as a specific case where
   targeted recommendations are useful for the following reasons:

   *  The recommendations address specific IoT-related security concerns
      not seen in the DNS behavior of general-purpose operating systems

   *  IoT devices have different resource characteristics from general-
      purpose devices, such as constrained power consumption, meaning
      incorrect software implementations can have an increased
      operational impact

   *  IoT devices do not typically have security agents installed on
      them

   *  There are many DNS RFCs, and this BCP can be used to identify
      those related to specific security issues observed through
      research into IoT devices, with the aim of making it easier to
      address these vulnerabilities

   *  IoT devices may be deployed at scale on dedicated networks, and
      these recommendations will be useful to network security teams in
      mitigating vulnerabilities, especially where device behavior
      cannot be changed

   *  Manufacturers may use standard software distributions aimed at IoT
      devices without considering DNS behavior.  This BCP provides
      recommendations that can be used as part of the criteria to
      evaluate these distributions

   *  IoT devices typically perform the same set of DNS queries on
      start-up, which makes them both more vulnerable because of this
      predictable behavior and also more prone to fingerprinting

   DNS terminology in this draft conforms to RFC 9499.  In this context,
   Stub Resolver refers to the IoT device, and Resolver refers to the
   DNS server used by the IoT device.

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2.  Conventions and Definitions

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
   "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in
   BCP 14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
   capitals, as shown here.

3.  Recommendations for IoT Device Stub Resolvers

3.1.  Compliance with Encrypted DNS Standards

   The majority of IoT devices use unencrypted DNS over port 53, which
   means this traffic can be captured and is open to interception and
   manipulation.

   IoT devices SHOULD support encrypted DNS protocols such as DNS over
   TLS (DoT) [RFC7858], DNS over QUIC (DoQ) [RFC9250], or DNS over HTTPS
   (DoH) [RFC8484] for enhanced privacy, security, and compatibility.
   To mitigate against fingerprinting IoT devices, DNS queries can be
   padded as detailed in [RFC7830] and [RFC8467].  Encrypted DNS
   protocols are not mandated for compliance with DNS standards, but the
   use of encrypted DNS may be mandated by some regulators and advised
   by competent authorities in deployment guidelines.

3.2.  Configuration of DNS servers used by IoT Stub Resolvers

   IoT devices have been observed to fall back to hard-coded IP
   addresses for DNS resolvers or ignore addresses assigned to them via
   automated configuration methods such as DHCP Option 6.

   DNS resolvers on devices MUST be configurable via network
   configuration protocols.  Stub resolvers MUST NOT fall back to hard-
   coded resolvers.  This may result in an insecure communication
   channel, and the open resolvers used in these hard-coded
   configurations may be blocked by network policy, preventing the
   device from working.

   Devices SHOULD use the following priority order for selecting a
   resolver.  The first one that results in a discovered service should
   be selected.

   1.  Manual user configuration

   2.  Device management software

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   3.  IPv6 Router Advertisement (RA) [RFC8106], DHCPv6 [RFC8415] (if
       M=1 bit in RA), IPv4 DHCP [RFC2132].  When Encrypted resolver
       options are present [RFC9463], then they SHOULD be used.

   If the selected resolver is a plain IP address (e.g. from options 4
   or 5) this implies unencrypted DNS.  In such cases Discovery of
   Designated Resolvers [RFC9462] SHOULD be performed to upgrade to
   encrypted access, where available.

3.3.  Source Port and Transaction ID Randomization

   Some IoT devices have been observed to have insufficient or no
   randomization in the source ports of DNS queries or DNS transaction
   IDs.  This leaves them vulnerable to spoofed responses.  A
   combination of Source Port and Transaction ID is used, amongst other
   criteria, by the stub resolver when accepting a DNS response.

   IoT devices MUST undergo adequate Source Port and Transaction ID
   randomization in their DNS queries as a mitigation against cache
   poisoning from spoofed responses.  Having both of these values
   correctly randomized decreases the chances of a successful spoofed
   attack.  Stub resolvers MUST follow the recommendations of [RFC5452]
   as described in Section 4.5 to ensure Source Port randomization and
   Transaction ID randomization as required by [RFC1035].

3.4.  Handling of TTL Values

   IoT devices have been observed making unexpectedly high numbers of
   DNS queries even when DNS record Time-To-Live values (TTLs) would
   mean this should be unnecessary.  Devices have also been observed
   issuing DNS queries at fixed, highly predictable intervals for the
   same domain names, regardless of operational changes or TTL values.

   Unnecessary queries may lead to a drain of power in resource-
   constrained IoT devices.  Conversely, very high TTLs may impact
   device operations such as communicating with management servers,
   receiving software updates, or other changes, which may lead to
   security issues.  Deterministic querying behavior increases the risk
   of device fingerprinting by adversaries who can profile query timing
   to identify specific device models or firmware versions.

   The ideal operational scenario is for the owners of the authoritative
   zones used to manage the devices setting TTL values appropriately for
   the zones and specific records within them.  Devices would then query
   these records only as needed.

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   IoT devices MUST cache DNS responses and SHOULD honour TTLs when
   caching.  If for operational reasons this is not ideal, such as the
   case where a management server record could be cached for an extended
   period preventing failover or change, then minimum and maximum TTLs
   MAY be configurable on the device but MUST NOT not be hardcoded
   values.  Where IoT stub resolvers cannot be configured with minimum
   and maximum TTL values, this can be mitigated by setting these on the
   network resolver.

   If certain device operational requirements necessitate periodic
   revalidation of critical domains (e.g. management servers), these
   repeated queries SHOULD use non-deterministic inter-query timing to
   avoid fixed intervals.

   In case of unsuccessful resolution, such as when the resolver is
   unavailable, IoT devices should implement exponential back-off
   strategies.

3.5.  Support of EDNS(0)

   Devices have been observed having limited support for EDNS(0),
   causing them to revert to TCP for queries over 512 bytes, affecting
   the device's efficiency.  Other research findings include consuming
   additional processing resources and failing to maintain their network
   connectivity when responses to DNS requests exceed 512 bytes.

   IoT devices MUST support EDNS(0) and send a supported UDP packet size
   via OPT 41 [RFC6891].  To avoid fragmentation of UDP packets, which
   may be dropped by intervening networks, the maximum packet size
   SHOULD be set to 1220 bytes as a default, although device
   configuration MAY allow this to be configurable.  Although the
   networks to which IoT devices connect may support larger packet sizes
   than 1220 bytes, the nature of these devices in being deployed on
   many network types and DNS queries traversing networks controlled by
   different operators means it is operationally more effective to use
   this value.  In addition, IoT devices MUST support using TCP for
   queries when a TC bit is returned from the resolver [RFC1035].

3.6.  Improve Device Behavior in Response to Resolution Problems

   When resolving domain names, IoT devices may be unable to obtain an
   answer, and as a result, surges in the number of queries and retries
   have been observed, or an increase in queries using an alternate
   protocol (more aggressively querying via IPv6 rather than IPv4).

   The use of serve-stale [RFC8767] by resolver software on the IoT
   device may mitigate the impact of failed resolution, such as when
   authoritative servers are unavailable.  If the stub-resolver has this

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   capability, device manufacturers should consider the benefits and any
   impact of using this.  Network operators SHOULD configure DNS
   resolvers to use serve-stale for networks supporting IoT devices,
   especially where these networks are dedicated to this type of device,
   to limit any operational impact on IoT devices when resolution fails.
   Network operators MUST support IoT devices with dual-stack resolvers,
   rather than providing only IPv4 resolvers when devices are configured
   with both IPv4 and IPv6.

3.7.  Use of DNSSEC

   IoT devices can be induced to contact an adversary server or make
   large volumes of DNS queries via spoofed responses to queries.  It
   would be difficult for manufacturers to mitigate this by implementing
   checks of data received via DNS queries, such as validating IP
   addresses in the A/AAAA record RDATA.  In addition any validation of
   this type does not address the problem of MiTM attacks that could be
   the attack vector.

   Devices MAY improve security in their DNS stacks by utilizing DNSSEC
   validation [RFC9364].  Where the stub resolver is not capable of
   DNSSEC validation, but does support checking that queries are
   validated, the resolver used by the device as described in section
   <<configuring-resolvers>> MUST be configured to validate responses.
   Manufacturers should consider the type of network the device is
   likely to be deployed on, such as a home network vs. other types, in
   determining the likelihood of DNSSEC being available on the network
   and thus deciding if the device should rely on a validating resolver
   or making the device independently capable of validation.

   Manufacturers MUST sign public zones used for device management and
   services to ensure queries can be validated to support any of their
   stub-resolvers or more generally resolvers that will use DNSSEC for
   validation.  This will improve security regardless of whether devices
   can support checking that queries are validated.

   IoT stub-resolvers may adopt one of two models for validation: -
   Resolver validation - stub-resolvers using the Authenticated Data
   (AD) bit, which is suitable for constrained devices but requires
   explicit trust in the upstream resolver - Full validation - local
   cryptographic checks, providing stronger assurance

   Both models improve security over unvalidated queries, but
   manufacturers should weigh the security considerations, such as trust
   assumptions, against the operational feasibility when considering
   which approach to take.

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3.7.1.  Resolver Validation

   Where a manufacturer does utilize DNSSEC validation on the device the
   minimum implementation, from a device perspective, will be a
   validating resolver and the device supporting the AD bit.  Relying
   solely on the AD bit assumes that the upstream resolver is
   trustworthy and uncompromised.

   Manufacturers may implement a testing mechanism to determine if the
   network resolver supports DNSSEC so that it can utilize validation in
   a network that supports it, or fall back to unvalidated queries.  Any
   test of the resolver will only validate that it supports DNSSEC,
   given that the resolver is performing the validation it must be
   explicitly trusted.

   In order to check that a DNS query has been validated a stub-resolver
   MUST check the Authenticated Data (AD) bit [RFC4035] in responses to
   determine whether data was validated by the resolver it is using.
   When checking for the AD bit stub-resolvers MUST treat DNSSEC
   validation failures as fatal.  Responses that fail validation MUST
   NOT be used for name resolution.

3.7.2.  Full Validation

   Device stub-resolvers can perform validation themselves in cases
   where the network resolver does not validate queries or the device
   does not trust the network resolver to do so.

   Considerations for device manufacturers in implementing full
   validation include:

   *  Devices performing local validation gain end-to-end trust but at
      higher computational cost

   *  Devices should cache results including intermediate validation
      results to reduce repeated computation

   *  Devices will need to be shipped with a root trust anchor and have
      a mechanism to securely update this

   To implement full local validation stub-resolvers MUST conform to
   [RFC4035] section 4.9.  In practice it is likely to be easier for
   manufacturers to implement a minimum footprint validating recursive
   server on the device, configured to forward queries to a network
   resolver if necessary, rather than develop this capability in any
   stub resolver.

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4.  Security Considerations

   This BCP discusses security considerations for IoT devices in section
   Recommendations for IoT Device Stub Resolvers and mitigations that
   can be implemented on DNS resolvers.  More general DNS security
   considerations in managing networks with IoT devices are detailed
   here.

   Most IoT devices do not have specific security software agents
   installed on them, as is typically the case with general-purpose
   operating systems and supply chain vulnerabilities may mean that
   these devices are compromised before reaching the consumer.  Network
   operators can use DNS resolvers to mitigate these risks.

   Private network operators MAY block DNS traffic to any resolvers
   other than those managed by the operator, so that traffic is not
   bypassing any DNS security controls such as response policy zones or
   DNS traffic logging.  This is more likely to be the case on
   enterprise or other private networks rather than service providers
   that don't want to limit customers using alternate resolvers.

   Providers SHOULD alter resolver configuration to mitigate some of the
   security risks or operational issues identified in this BCP where it
   does not impact the operation of other types of DNS clients.  For
   instance the use of serve-stale [RFC8767] is likely to benefit all
   stub resolvers on a network.

   Where operators have networks dedicated to IoT devices, they MAY
   limit DNS resolution to only domain names used by those IoT devices
   to mitigate any impact in the event of a compromise to the device.
   Manufacturers SHOULD provide domain names used for communication to
   facilitate this and other security measures used to secure devices
   and identify those that are compromised.  Manufacturer Usage
   Descriptions (MUDs) could provide details of domain names used in
   device operations that can then be added to DNS security controls.

   DNS queries are most commonly carried over UDP and compromised
   devices have been used in DoS attacks by sending queries with forged
   source addresses, hence network operators MUST implement [RFC2827]
   network ingress filtering.  Network operators should implement DNS
   Response Rate Limiting (RRL) on resolvers to mitigate high query
   volumes from devices causing DoS to the DNS infrastructure.

5.  IANA Considerations

   This document has no IANA actions.

6.  References

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6.1.  Normative References

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2119>.

   [RFC8174]  Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
              2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
              May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8174>.

6.2.  Informative References

   [RFC1035]  Mockapetris, P., "Domain names - implementation and
              specification", STD 13, RFC 1035, DOI 10.17487/RFC1035,
              November 1987, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1035>.

   [RFC2132]  Alexander, S. and R. Droms, "DHCP Options and BOOTP Vendor
              Extensions", RFC 2132, DOI 10.17487/RFC2132, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2132>.

   [RFC2827]  Ferguson, P. and D. Senie, "Network Ingress Filtering:
              Defeating Denial of Service Attacks which employ IP Source
              Address Spoofing", BCP 38, RFC 2827, DOI 10.17487/RFC2827,
              May 2000, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2827>.

   [RFC4035]  Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and S.
              Rose, "Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security
              Extensions", RFC 4035, DOI 10.17487/RFC4035, March 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4035>.

   [RFC5452]  Hubert, A. and R. van Mook, "Measures for Making DNS More
              Resilient against Forged Answers", RFC 5452,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC5452, January 2009,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5452>.

   [RFC6891]  Damas, J., Graff, M., and P. Vixie, "Extension Mechanisms
              for DNS (EDNS(0))", STD 75, RFC 6891,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6891, April 2013,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6891>.

   [RFC7830]  Mayrhofer, A., "The EDNS(0) Padding Option", RFC 7830,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7830, May 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7830>.

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   [RFC7858]  Hu, Z., Zhu, L., Heidemann, J., Mankin, A., Wessels, D.,
              and P. Hoffman, "Specification for DNS over Transport
              Layer Security (TLS)", RFC 7858, DOI 10.17487/RFC7858, May
              2016, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7858>.

   [RFC8106]  Jeong, J., Park, S., Beloeil, L., and S. Madanapalli,
              "IPv6 Router Advertisement Options for DNS Configuration",
              RFC 8106, DOI 10.17487/RFC8106, March 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8106>.

   [RFC8415]  Mrugalski, T., Siodelski, M., Volz, B., Yourtchenko, A.,
              Richardson, M., Jiang, S., Lemon, T., and T. Winters,
              "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6 (DHCPv6)",
              RFC 8415, DOI 10.17487/RFC8415, November 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8415>.

   [RFC8467]  Mayrhofer, A., "Padding Policies for Extension Mechanisms
              for DNS (EDNS(0))", RFC 8467, DOI 10.17487/RFC8467,
              October 2018, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8467>.

   [RFC8484]  Hoffman, P. and P. McManus, "DNS Queries over HTTPS
              (DoH)", RFC 8484, DOI 10.17487/RFC8484, October 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8484>.

   [RFC8767]  Lawrence, D., Kumari, W., and P. Sood, "Serving Stale Data
              to Improve DNS Resiliency", RFC 8767,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8767, March 2020,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8767>.

   [RFC9250]  Huitema, C., Dickinson, S., and A. Mankin, "DNS over
              Dedicated QUIC Connections", RFC 9250,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9250, May 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9250>.

   [RFC9364]  Hoffman, P., "DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC)", BCP 237,
              RFC 9364, DOI 10.17487/RFC9364, February 2023,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9364>.

   [RFC9462]  Pauly, T., Kinnear, E., Wood, C. A., McManus, P., and T.
              Jensen, "Discovery of Designated Resolvers", RFC 9462,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9462, November 2023,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9462>.

   [RFC9463]  Boucadair, M., Ed., Reddy.K, T., Ed., Wing, D., Cook, N.,
              and T. Jensen, "DHCP and Router Advertisement Options for
              the Discovery of Network-designated Resolvers (DNR)",
              RFC 9463, DOI 10.17487/RFC9463, November 2023,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9463>.

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Acknowledgments

   We thank the researchers, reviewers, and engineers who contributed to
   the analysis and testing process.

   The authors thank Mohamed Boucadair, Chris Box, Eliot Lear, Martine
   Sophie Lenders, Jim Reid, Michael Richardson and Hannes Tschofenig
   for their contributions, questions and comments.

Authors' Addresses

   Abhishek Mishra
   Inria
   Email: abhishek.mishra@inria.fr

   Andrew Losty
   UCL
   Email: andrew.losty.23@ucl.ac.uk

   Anna Maria Mandalari
   UCL
   Email: a.mandalari@ucl.ac.uk

   Jim Mozley
   Infoblox
   Email: jmozley@infoblox.com

   Mathieu Cunche
   Inria
   Email: mathieu.cunche@inria.fr

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