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TLS/DTLS 1.3 Profiles for the Internet of Things
draft-ietf-uta-tls13-iot-profile-11

Document Type Active Internet-Draft (uta WG)
Authors Hannes Tschofenig , Thomas Fossati , Michael Richardson
Last updated 2024-10-20
Replaces draft-tschofenig-uta-tls13-profile
RFC stream Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
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Mar 2024
TLS/DTLS 1.3 Profiles for IoT to IETF LC
Document shepherd Renzo Navas
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draft-ietf-uta-tls13-iot-profile-11
UTA                                                        H. Tschofenig
Internet-Draft                                                     H-BRS
Updates: 7925 (if approved)                                   T. Fossati
Intended status: Standards Track                                  Linaro
Expires: 23 April 2025                                     M. Richardson
                                                Sandelman Software Works
                                                         20 October 2024

            TLS/DTLS 1.3 Profiles for the Internet of Things
                  draft-ietf-uta-tls13-iot-profile-11

Abstract

   This document is a companion to RFC 7925 and defines TLS/DTLS 1.3
   profiles for Internet of Things devices.  It also updates RFC 7925
   with regards to the X.509 certificate profile and ciphersuite
   requirements.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on 23 April 2025.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2024 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

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   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/
   license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document.
   Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
   and restrictions with respect to this document.  Code Components
   extracted from this document must include Revised BSD License text as
   described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are
   provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
     1.1.  Conventions and Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5
   2.  Credential Types  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5
   3.  Error Handling  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
   4.  Session Resumption  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
   5.   Compression  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
   6.   Forward Secrecy  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
   7.  Authentication and Integrity-only Cipher Suites . . . . . . .   7
   8.  Keep-Alive  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
   9.  Timers and ACKs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
   10.  Random Number Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
   11. Server Name Indication  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
   12.  Maximum Fragment Length Negotiation  . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
   13. Crypto Agility  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   14. Key Length Recommendations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   15. 0-RTT Data  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   16. Certificate Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
     16.1.  All Certificates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
       16.1.1.  Version  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
       16.1.2.  Serial Number  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
       16.1.3.  Signature  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
       16.1.4.  Issuer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
       16.1.5.   Validity  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
       16.1.6.   Subject Public Key Info . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
       16.1.7.  Certificate Revocation Checks  . . . . . . . . . . .  12
     16.2.  Root CA Certificate  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
       16.2.1.  Subject  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
       16.2.2.  Authority Key Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
       16.2.3.  Subject Key Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
       16.2.4.  Key Usage  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
       16.2.5.  Basic Constraints  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
     16.3.  Subordinate CA Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
       16.3.1.  Subject  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
       16.3.2.  Authority Key Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
       16.3.3.  Subject Key Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
       16.3.4.  Key Usage  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
       16.3.5.  Basic Constraints  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16

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       16.3.6.  CRL Distribution Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
       16.3.7.  Authority Information Access . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
     16.4.  End Entity Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
       16.4.1.  Subject  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
       16.4.2.  Authority Key Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
       16.4.3.  Subject Key Identifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
       16.4.4.  Key Usage  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
   17. Certificate Overhead  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
   18. Ciphersuites  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
   19. Fault Attacks on Deterministic Signature Schemes  . . . . . .  20
   20. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Considerations  . . . . . . .  21
   21. Open Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
   22. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
   23. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
   24. References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
     24.1.  Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
     24.2.  Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
   Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
   Contributors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28

1.  Introduction

   In the rapidly evolving Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem, securing
   device-to-device communication is a critical requirement.  The
   Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security
   (DTLS) protocols have been foundational for ensuring encryption,
   integrity, and authenticity in network communications.  However, the
   inherent constraints of IoT devices, such as limited processing
   capacity, memory, and energy, render conventional, off-the-shelf TLS/
   DTLS implementations suboptimal for many IoT use cases.  This
   document, TLS/DTLS 1.3 Profiles for the Internet of Things (IoT),
   addresses these limitations by specifying profiles of TLS 1.3 and
   DTLS 1.3, optimized for the operational constraints of resource-
   constrained IoT systems.

   These profiles aim to balance strong security with the hardware and
   software limitations of IoT devices.  TLS/DTLS 1.3 introduces
   numerous enhancements over previous versions, including reduced
   handshake overhead, more efficient encryption schemes, and mechanisms
   to thwart replay and downgrade attacks.  However, the default
   configurations may still present excessive computational and memory
   demands for constrained devices with limited CPU, RAM, and power
   resources.  The document mitigates these challenges by defining
   lightweight protocol configurations while maintaining the essential
   security guarantees of TLS/DTLS.  This specification also updates
   [RFC7925] with regards to the X.509 certificate profile (Section 16)
   and ciphersuites requirements (Section 18).

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   Key adaptations in the IoT-specific profiles include streamlining the
   handshake protocol, minimizing cryptographic operation complexity,
   and reducing the reliance on resource-heavy certificate chains.  For
   example, where mutual authentication is needed, the profiles advocate
   the use of pre-shared keys (PSKs) over a full public key
   infrastructure (PKI) to mitigate the overhead associated with
   certificate management.  Moreover, the profiles address session
   resumption techniques and the handling of stateful versus stateless
   session management, which are pivotal for maintaining resource-
   efficient, persistent connections in IoT deployments.

   TLS 1.3 has been re-designed and several previously defined
   extensions are not applicable to the new version of TLS/DTLS anymore.
   The following features changed with the transition from TLS 1.2 to
   1.3:

   *  TLS 1.3 introduced the concept of post-handshake authentication
      messages, which partially replaced the need for the re-negotiation
      feature [RFC5746] available in earlier TLS versions.  However,
      rekeying defined in Section 4.6.3 of [TLS13] does not provide
      forward secrecy and post-handshake authentication defined in
      Section 4.6.2 of [TLS13] only offers client-to-server
      authentication.  The "Exported Authenticator" specification, see
      [RFC9261], recently added support for mutual, post-handshake
      authentication but requires the Certificate, CertificateVerify and
      the Finished messages to be exchanged by the application layer
      protocol, as it is exercised for HTTP/2 and HTTP/3 in
      [I-D.ietf-httpbis-secondary-server-certs].
   *  Rekeying of the application traffic secret does not lead to an
      update of the exporter secret (see Section 7.5 of [TLS13]) since
      the derived export secret is based on the exporter_master_secret
      and not on the application traffic secret.
   *  Flight #4, which was used by EAP-TLS 1.2 [RFC5216], does not exist
      in TLS 1.3.  As a consequence, EAP-TLS 1.3 [RFC9190] introduced a
      dummy message.
   *  [RFC4279] introduced PSK-based authentication to TLS, a feature
      re-designed in TLS 1.3.  The "PSK identity hint" defined in
      [RFC4279], which is used by the server to help the client in
      selecting which PSK identity to use, is, however, not available
      anymore in TLS 1.3.
   *  Finally, ciphersuites were depreciated and the RSA-based key
      transport is not yet supported in TLS 1.3.

   The profiles in this specification are designed to be adaptable to
   the broad spectrum of IoT applications, from low-power consumer
   devices to large-scale industrial deployments.  It provides
   guidelines for implementing TLS/DTLS 1.3 in diverse networking
   contexts, including reliable, connection-oriented transport via TCP

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   for TLS, and lightweight, connectionless communication via UDP for
   DTLS.  In particular, DTLS is emphasized for scenarios where low-
   latency communication is paramount, such as multi-hop mesh networks
   and low-power wide-area networks, where the amount of data exchanged
   needs to be minimized.

   In conclusion, this document offers comprehensive guidance for
   deploying secure communication in resource-constrained IoT
   environments.  It outlines best practices for configuring TLS/DTLS
   1.3 to meet the unique needs of IoT devices, ensuring robust security
   without overwhelming their limited processing, memory, and power
   resources.  The document plays a vital role in facilitating secure,
   efficient IoT deployments, supporting the broad adoption of secure
   communication standards.

1.1.  Conventions and Terminology

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
   "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in
   BCP 14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
   capitals, as shown here.

   This document reuses the terms "SHOULD+", "SHOULD-" and "MUST-" from
   [RFC8221].

2.  Credential Types

   In accordance with the recommendations in [RFC7925], a compliant
   implementation MUST implement TLS_AES_128_CCM_8_SHA256.  It SHOULD
   implement TLS_CHACHA20_POLY1305_SHA256.

   Pre-shared key based authentication is integrated into the main TLS/
   DTLS 1.3 specification and has been harmonized with session
   resumption.

   A compliant implementation supporting authentication based on
   certificates and raw public keys MUST support digital signatures with
   ecdsa_secp256r1_sha256.  A compliant implementation MUST support the
   key exchange with secp256r1 (NIST P-256) and SHOULD support key
   exchange with X25519.

   A plain PSK-based TLS/DTLS client or server MUST implement the
   following extensions:

   *  Supported Versions,
   *  Cookie,
   *  Server Name Indication (SNI),

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   *  Pre-Shared Key,
   *  PSK Key Exchange Modes, and
   *  Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation (ALPN).

   For use of external pre-shared keys [RFC9258] makes the following
   recommendation:

      Applications SHOULD provision separate PSKs for (D)TLS 1.3 and
      prior versions.

   Where possible, the importer interface defined in [RFC9258] MUST be
   used for external PSKs.  This ensures that external PSKs used in
   (D)TLS 1.3 are bound to a specific key derivation function (KDF) and
   hash function.

   The SNI extension is discussed in this document and the justification
   for implementing and using the ALPN extension can be found in
   [RFC9325].

   For TLS/DTLS clients and servers implementing raw public keys and/or
   certificates the guidance for mandatory-to-implement extensions
   described in Section 9.2 of [RFC8446] MUST be followed.

3.  Error Handling

   TLS 1.3 simplified the Alert protocol but the underlying challenge in
   an embedded context remains unchanged, namely what should an IoT
   device do when it encounters an error situation.  The classical
   approach used in a desktop environment where the user is prompted is
   often not applicable with unattended devices.  Hence, it is more
   important for a developer to find out from which error cases a device
   can recover from.

4.  Session Resumption

   TLS 1.3 has built-in support for session resumption by utilizing PSK-
   based credentials established in an earlier exchange.

5.   Compression

   TLS 1.3 does not have support for compression of application data
   traffic, as offered by previous versions of TLS.  Applications are
   therefore responsible for transmitting payloads that are either
   compressed or use a more efficient encoding otherwise.

   With regards to the handshake itself, various strategies have been
   applied to reduce the size of the exchanged payloads.  TLS and DTLS
   1.3 use less overhead, depending on the type of key confirmations,

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   when compared to previous versions of the protocol.  Additionally,
   the work on Compact TLS (cTLS) [I-D.ietf-tls-ctls] has taken
   compression of the handshake a step further by utilizing out-of-band
   knowledge between the communication parties to reduce the amount of
   data to be transmitted at each individual handshake, among applying
   other techniques.

6.   Forward Secrecy

   RFC 8446 has removed Static RSA and Static Diffie-Hellman cipher
   suites, therefore all public-key-based key exchange mechanisms
   available in TLS 1.3 provide forward secrecy.

   Pre-shared keys (PSKs) can be used with (EC)DHE key exchange to
   provide forward secrecy or can be used alone, at the cost of losing
   forward secrecy for the application data.

7.  Authentication and Integrity-only Cipher Suites

   For a few, very specific Industrial IoT use cases [RFC9150] defines
   two cipher suites that provide data authenticity, but not data
   confidentiality.  Please review the security and privacy
   considerations about their use detailed in Section 9 of [RFC9150].

8.  Keep-Alive

   The discussion in Section 10 of [RFC7925] is applicable.

9.  Timers and ACKs

   Compared to DTLS 1.2 timeout-based whole flight retransmission, DTLS
   1.3 ACKs sensibly decrease the risk of congestion collapse which was
   the basis for the very conservative recommendations given in
   Section 11 of [RFC7925].

   In general, the recommendations in Section 7.3 of [DTLS13] regarding
   ACKs apply.  In particular, "[w]hen DTLS 1.3 is used in deployments
   with lossy networks, such as low-power, long-range radio networks as
   well as low-power mesh networks, the use of ACKs is recommended" to
   signal any sign of disruption or lack of progress.  This allows for
   selective or early retransmission, which leads to more efficient use
   of bandwidth and memory resources.

   Due to the vast range of network technologies used in IoT
   deployments, from wired LAN to GSM-SMS, it's not possible to provide
   a universal recommendation for an initial timeout.  Therefore, it is
   RECOMMENDED that DTLS 1.3 implementations allow developers to
   explicitly set the initial timer value.  Developers SHOULD set the

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   initial timeout to be twice the expected round-trip time (RTT), but
   no less than 1000ms.  For specific application/network combinations,
   a sub-second initial timeout MAY be set.  In cases where no RTT
   estimates are available, a 1000ms initial timeout is suitable for the
   general Internet.

   For RRC, the recommendations in Section 7.5 of
   [I-D.ietf-tls-dtls-rrc] apply.  Just like the handshake initial
   timers, it is RECOMMENDED that DTLS 1.2 and 1.3 implementations offer
   an option for their developers to explicitly set the RRC timer.

10.   Random Number Generation

   The discussion in Section 12 of [RFC7925] is applicable with one
   exception: the ClientHello and the ServerHello messages in TLS 1.3 do
   not contain gmt_unix_time component anymore.

11.  Server Name Indication

   This specification mandates the implementation of the Server Name
   Indication (SNI) extension.  Where privacy requirements require it,
   the ECH (Encrypted Client Hello) extension [I-D.ietf-tls-esni]
   prevents an on-path attacker to determine the domain name the client
   is trying to connect to.

   Since the Encrypted Client Hello extension requires use of Hybrid
   Public Key Encryption (HPKE) [I-D.irtf-cfrg-hpke] and additional
   protocols require further protocol exchanges and cryptographic
   operations, there is a certain overhead associated with this privacy
   feature.

   Note that in industrial IoT deployments the use of ECH may not be an
   option because network administrators inspect DNS traffic generated
   by IoT devices in order to detect malicious behaviour.

   Besides, to avoid leaking DNS lookups from network inspection
   altogether further protocols are needed, including DoH [RFC8484] and
   DPRIVE [RFC7858] [RFC8094].  For use of such techniques in managed
   networks, the reader is advised to keep up to date with the protocols
   defined by the Adaptive DNS Discovery (add) working group [ADD].

12.   Maximum Fragment Length Negotiation

   The Maximum Fragment Length Negotiation (MFL) extension has been
   superseded by the Record Size Limit (RSL) extension [RFC8449].
   Implementations in compliance with this specification MUST implement
   the RSL extension and SHOULD use it to indicate their RAM
   limitations.

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13.  Crypto Agility

   The recommendations in Section 19 of [RFC7925] are applicable.

14.  Key Length Recommendations

   The recommendations in Section 20 of [RFC7925] are applicable.

15.  0-RTT Data

   Appendix E.5 of [TLS13] establishes that:

      Application protocols MUST NOT use 0-RTT data without a profile
      that defines its use.  That profile needs to identify which
      messages or interactions are safe to use with 0-RTT and how to
      handle the situation when the server rejects 0-RTT and falls back
      to 1-RTT.

   At the time of writing, no such profile has been defined for CoAP
   [CoAP].  Therefore, 0-RTT MUST NOT be used by CoAP applications.

16.  Certificate Profile

   This section contains updates and clarifications to the certificate
   profile defined in [RFC7925].  The content of Table 1 of [RFC7925]
   has been split by certificate "type" in order to clarify exactly what
   requirements and recommendations apply to which entity in the PKI
   hierarchy.

   The content is also better aligned with the IEEE 802.1AR [_8021AR]
   specification, which introduces the terms Initial Device Identifier
   (IDevID) and Locally Significant Device Identifiers (LDevIDs).
   IDevIDs and LDevIDs are Device Identifier (DevID) and a DevID
   consists of

   *  a private key,
   *  a certificate (containing the public key and the identifier
      certified by the certificate's issuer), and
   *  a certificate chain up to a trust anchor.  The trust anchor is is
      usually the root certificate).

   The IDevID is typically provisioned by a manufacturer and signed by
   the manufacturer CA.  It is then used to obtain operational
   certificates, the LDevIDs, from the operator or owner of the device.
   Some protocols also introduce an additional hierarchy with
   application instance certificates, which are obtained for use with
   specific applications.

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   IDevIDs are primarily used with device onboarding or bootstrapping
   protocols, such as the Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key Infrastructure
   (BRSKI) protocol [RFC8995] or by LwM2M Bootstrap [LwM2M].  Hence, the
   use of IDevIDs is limited in purpose even though they have a long
   lifetime, or do not expire at all.  While some bootstrapping
   protocols use TLS (and therefore make use of the IDevID as part of
   client authentication) there are other bootstrapping protocols that
   do not use TLS/DTLS for client authentication, such as FIDO Device
   Onboarding (FDO) [FDO].  In many cases, a profile for the certificate
   content is provided by those specifications.  For these reasons, this
   specification focuses on the description of LDevIDs.

   While the IEEE 802.1AR terminology is utilized in this document, this
   specification does not claim conformance to IEEE 802.1AR since such a
   compliance statement goes beyond the use of the terminology and the
   certificate content and would include the use of management
   protocols, fulfillment of certain hardware security requirements, and
   interfaces to access these hardware security modules.  Placing these
   requirements on network equipment like routers may be appropriate but
   designers of constrained IoT devices have opted for different
   protocols and hardware security choices.

16.1.  All Certificates

   To avoid repetition, this section outlines requirements on X.509
   certificates applicable to all PKI entities.

16.1.1.  Version

   Certificates MUST be of type X.509 v3.  Note that TLS 1.3 allows to
   convey payloads other than X.509 certificates in the Certificate
   message.  The description in this section only focuses on X.509 v3
   certificates and leaves the description of other formats to other
   sections or even other specifications.

16.1.2.  Serial Number

   CAs MUST generate non-sequential serial numbers greater than or equal
   to eight (8) octets from a cryptographically secure pseudo-random
   number generator.  [RFC5280] limits this field to a maximum of 20
   octets.  The serial number MUST be unique for each certificate issued
   by a given CA (i.e., the issuer name and the serial number uniquely
   identify a certificate).

   This requirement is aligned with [RFC5280].

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16.1.3.  Signature

   The signature MUST be ecdsa-with-SHA256 or stronger [RFC5758].

   Note: In contrast to IEEE 802.1AR this specification does not require
   end entity certificates, subordinate CA certificates, and CA
   certificates to use the same signature algorithm.  Furthermore, this
   specification does not utlize RSA for use with constrained IoT
   devices and networks.

16.1.4.  Issuer

   The issuer field MUST contain a non-empty distinguished name (DN) of
   the entity that has signed and issued the certificate in accordance
   to [RFC5280].

16.1.5.   Validity

   In IoT deployment scenarios it is often expected that the IDevIDs
   have no maximum validity period.  For this purpose the use of a
   special value for the notAfter date field, the GeneralizedTime value
   of 99991231235959Z, is utilized.  If this is done, then the CA
   certificates and the certificates of subordinate CAs cannot have a
   maximum validity period either.  Hence, it requires careful
   consideration whether it is appropriate to issue IDevID certificates
   with no maximum validity period.

   LDevID certificates are, however, issued by the operator or owner,
   and may be renewed at a regular interval using protocols, such as
   Enrollment over Secure Transport (EST) [RFC7030] or the Certificate
   Management Protocol (CMP) [RFC9483].  It is therefore RECOMMENDED to
   limit the lifetime of these LDevID certificates using the notBefore
   and notAfter fields, as described in Section 4.1.2.5 of [RFC5280].
   Values MUST be expressed in Greenwich Mean Time (Zulu) and MUST
   include seconds even where the number of seconds is zero.

   Note that the validity period is defined as the period of time from
   notBefore through notAfter, inclusive.  This means that a
   hypothetical certificate with a notBefore date of 9 June 2021 at
   03:42:01 and a notAfter date of 7 September 2021 at 03:42:01 becomes
   valid at the beginning of the :01 second, and only becomes invalid at
   the :02 second, a period that is 90 days plus 1 second.  So for a
   90-day, notAfter must actually be 03:42:00.

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   For devices without a reliable source of time we advise the use of a
   device management solution, which typically includes a certificate
   management protocol, to manage the lifetime of all the certificates
   used by the device.  While this approach does not utilize
   certificates to its widest extent, it is a solution that extends the
   capabilities offered by a raw public key approach.

16.1.6.   Subject Public Key Info

   The SubjectPublicKeyInfo structure indicates the algorithm and any
   associated parameters for the ECC public key.  This profile uses the
   id-ecPublicKey algorithm identifier for ECDSA signature keys, as
   defined and specified in [RFC5480].  This specification assumes that
   devices supported one of the following algorithms:

   *  id-ecPublicKey with secp256r1,
   *  id-ecPublicKey with secp384r1, and
   *  id-ecPublicKey with secp521r1.

   There is no requirement to use CA certificates and certificates of
   subordinate CAs to use the same algorithm as the end-entity
   certificate.  Certificates with longer lifetime may well use a
   cryptographic stronger algorithm.

16.1.7.  Certificate Revocation Checks

   The guidance in Section 4.4.3 of [RFC7925] still holds: for
   certificate revocation, neither the Online Certificate Status
   Protocol (OCSP) nor Certificate Revocation Lists (CRLs) are used by
   constrained IoT devices.

   Since the publication of RFC 7925 the need for firmware update
   mechanisms has been reinforced and the work on standardizing a secure
   and interoperable firmware update mechanism has made substantial
   progress, see [RFC9019].  RFC 7925 recommends to use a software /
   firmware update mechanism to provision devices with new trust
   anchors.  This approach only addresses the distribution of trust
   anchors and not end-entity certificates or certificates of
   subordinate CAs.

   The use of device management protocols for IoT devices, which often
   include an onboarding or bootstrapping mechanism, has also seen
   considerable uptake in deployed devices.  These protocols, some of
   which are standardized, allow for the distribution and updating of
   certificates on demand.  This enables a deployment model where IoT
   device utilize end-entity certificates with shorter lifetime making
   certificate revocation protocols, like OCSP and CRLs, less relevant.
   Whenever certificates are updated the TLS stack needs to be informed

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   since the communication endpoints need to be aware of the new
   certificates.  This is particularly important when long-lived TLS
   connections are used.  In such a case, the a post-handshake
   authentication exchange is triggered when the application requires
   it.  TLS 1.3 provides client-to-server post-handshake authentication
   only.  Mutual authentication via post-handshake messages is available
   by the use of the "Exported Authenticator" [RFC9261] but requires the
   application layer protocol to carry the payloads.

   Hence, instead of performing certificate revocation checks on the IoT
   device itself this specification recommends to delegate this task to
   the IoT device operator and to take the necessary action to allow IoT
   devices to remain operational.

   The CRL distribution points extension has been defined in RFC 5280 to
   identify how CRL information is obtained.  The authority information
   access extension indicates how to access information like the online
   certificate status service (OCSP).  Both extensions SHOULD NOT be
   set.  If set, they MUST NOT be marked critical.

16.2.  Root CA Certificate

   This section outlines the requirements for root CA certificates.

16.2.1.  Subject

   [RFC5280] mandates that Root CA certificates MUST have a non-empty
   subject field.  The subject field MUST contain the commonName, the
   organizationName, and the countryName attribute and MAY contain an
   organizationalUnitName attribute.

16.2.2.  Authority Key Identifier

   Section 4.2.1.1 of [RFC5280] defines the Authority Key Identifier as
   follows: "The authority key identifier extension provides a means of
   identifying the public key corresponding to the private key used to
   sign a certificate.  This extension is used where an issuer has
   multiple signing keys."

   The Authority Key Identifier extension MAY be omitted.  If it is set,
   it MUST NOT be marked critical, and MUST contain the
   subjectKeyIdentifier of this certificate.

   [Editor's Note: Do we need to set the Authority Key Identifier in the
   CA certificate?]

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16.2.3.  Subject Key Identifier

   Section 4.2.1.2 of [RFC5280] defines the Subject Key Identifier as
   follows: "The subject key identifier extension provides a means of
   identifying certificates that contain a particular public key."

   The Subject Key Identifier extension MUST be set, MUST NOT be marked
   critical, and MUST contain the key identifier of the public key
   contained in the subject public key info field.

   [Editor's Note: Do we need to set the Subject Key Identifier in the
   CA certificate?]

16.2.4.  Key Usage

   [RFC5280] defines the key usage field as follows: "The key usage
   extension defines the purpose (e.g., encipherment, signature,
   certificate signing) of the key contained in the certificate."

   The Key Usage extension SHOULD be set.  If it is set, it MUST be
   marked critical and the keyCertSign or cRLSign purposes MUST be set.
   Additional key usages MAY be set depending on the intended usage of
   the public key.

   [Editor's Note: Should we harden the requirement to "The Key Usage
   extension MUST be set.]

   [RFC5280] defines the extended key usage as follows: "This extension
   indicates one or more purposes for which the certified public key may
   be used, in addition to or in place of the basic purposes indicated
   in the key usage extension."

   This extendedKeyUsage extension MUST NOT be set.

16.2.5.  Basic Constraints

   [RFC5280] states that "The Basic Constraints extension identifies
   whether the subject of the certificate is a CA and the maximum depth
   of valid certification paths that include this certificate.  The cA
   boolean indicates whether the certified public key may be used to
   verify certificate signatures."

   For the pathLenConstraint RFC 5280 makes further statements:

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   *  "The pathLenConstraint field is meaningful only if the cA boolean
      is asserted and the key usage extension, if present, asserts the
      keyCertSign bit.  In this case, it gives the maximum number of
      non-self-issued intermediate certificates that may follow this
      certificate in a valid certification path."
   *  "A pathLenConstraint of zero indicates that no non-self-issued
      intermediate CA certificates may follow in a valid certification
      path."
   *  "Where pathLenConstraint does not appear, no limit is imposed."
   *  "Conforming CAs MUST include this extension in all CA certificates
      that contain public keys used to validate digital signatures on
      certificates and MUST mark the extension as critical in such
      certificates."

   The Basic Constraints extension MUST be set, MUST be marked critical,
   the cA flag MUST be set to true and the pathLenConstraint MUST be
   omitted.

   [Editor's Note: Should we soften the requirement to: "The
   pathLenConstraint field SHOULD NOT be present."]

16.3.  Subordinate CA Certificate

   This section outlines the requirements for subordinate CA
   certificates.

16.3.1.  Subject

   The subject field MUST be set and MUST contain the commonName, the
   organizationName, and the countryName attribute and MAY contain an
   organizationalUnitName attribute.

16.3.2.  Authority Key Identifier

   The Authority Key Identifier extension MUST be set, MUST NOT be
   marked critical, and MUST contain the subjectKeyIdentifier of the CA
   that issued this certificate.

16.3.3.  Subject Key Identifier

   The Subject Key Identifier extension MUST be set, MUST NOT be marked
   critical, and MUST contain the key identifier of the public key
   contained in the subject public key info field.

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16.3.4.  Key Usage

   The Key Usage extension MUST be set, MUST be marked critical, the
   keyCertSign or cRLSign purposes MUST be set, and the digitalSignature
   purpose SHOULD be set.

   The extendedKeyUsage extensed MAY be set depending on the intended
   usage of the public key.

   [Editor's Note: Should we harden the requirement to "The
   extendedKeyUsage MUST NOT be present."]

16.3.5.  Basic Constraints

   The Basic Constraints extension MUST be set, MUST be marked critical,
   the cA flag MUST be set to true and the pathLenConstraint MUST be set
   to 0.

   [Editor's Note: Should we soften the requriement to "The
   pathLenConstraint field MAY be present."]

16.3.6.  CRL Distribution Point

   The CRL Distribution Point extension SHOULD NOT be set.  If it is
   set, it MUST NOT be marked critical and MUST identify the CRL
   relevant for this certificate.

16.3.7.  Authority Information Access

   The Authority Information Access extension SHOULD NOT be set.  If it
   is set, it MUST NOT be marked critical and MUST identify the location
   of the certificate of the CA that issued this certificate and the
   location it provides an online certificate status service (OCSP).

16.4.  End Entity Certificate

   This section outlines the requirements for end entity certificates.

16.4.1.  Subject

   [RFC9525], Section 2 mandates that the subject field not be used to
   identify a service.  For IoT purposes, an empty subject field avoids
   all confusion for End Entity certificates.

   The requirement in Section 4.4.2 of [RFC7925] to only use EUI-64 for
   end entity certificates as a subject field is lifted.

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   Two fields are typically used to encode a device identifer, namely
   the Subject and the subjectAltName fields.  Protocol specifications
   tend to offer recommendations what identifiers to use and the
   deployment situation is fragmented.

   The subject field MAY include a unique device serial number.  If the
   serial number is included, it MUST be encoded in the X520SerialNumber
   attribute.

   [RFC5280] defines: "The subject alternative name extension allows
   identities to be bound to the subject of the certificate.  These
   identities may be included in addition to or in place of the identity
   in the subject field of the certificate."

   The subject alternative name extension MAY be set.  If it is set, it
   MUST NOT be marked critical, except when the subject DN contains an
   empty sequence.

   If the EUI-64 format is used to identify the subject of an end entity
   certificate, it MUST be encoded in a subjectAltName of type DNS-ID as
   a string of the form HH-HH-HH-HH-HH-HH-HH-HH where 'H' is one of the
   symbols '0'-'9' or 'A'-'F'.

   Domain names MUST NOT be encoded in the subject commonName.  Instead
   they MUST be encoded in a subjectAltName of type DNS-ID.  Domain
   names MUST NOT contain wildcard (*) characters.  The subjectAltName
   MUST NOT contain multiple names.

   Note: The IEEE 802.1AR recomments to encode information about a
   Trusted Platform Module (TPM), if present, in the HardwareModuleName.
   This specification does not follow this recommendation.

16.4.2.  Authority Key Identifier

   The Authority Key Identifier extension MUST be set, MUST NOT be
   marked critical, and MUST contain the subjectKeyIdentifier of the CA
   that issued this certificate.

16.4.3.  Subject Key Identifier

   The Subject Key Identifier SHOULD NOT be included in end-entity
   certificates.  If it is included, then the Subject Key Identifier
   extension MUST NOT be marked critical, and MUST contain the key
   identifier of the public key contained in the subject public key info
   field.

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   [Editor's Note: Should we harden the requirement and state: "The
   Subject Key Identifier MUST NOT be included in end-entity
   certificates."]

16.4.4.  Key Usage

   The key usage extension MUST be set and MUST be marked as critical.
   For signature verification keys the digitialSignature key usage
   purpose MUST be specified.  Other key usages are set according to the
   intended usage of the key.

   If enrollment of new certificates uses server-side key generation,
   encrypted delivery of the private key is required.  In such cases the
   key usage keyEncipherment or keyAgreement MUST be set because the
   encrypted delivery of the newly generated key involves encryption or
   agreement of a symmetric key.  On-device key generation is, however,
   the preferred approach.

   The extendedKeyUsage MUST be present and contain at least one of id-
   kp-serverAuth or id-kp-clientAuth.

17.  Certificate Overhead

   In a public key-based key exchange, certificates and public keys are
   a major contributor to the size of the overall handshake.  For
   example, in a regular TLS 1.3 handshake with minimal ECC certificates
   and no subordinate CA utilizing the secp256r1 curve with mutual
   authentication, around 40% of the entire handshake payload is
   consumed by the two exchanged certificates.

   Hence, it is not surprising that there is a strong desire to reduce
   the size of certificates and certificate chains.  This has lead to
   various standardization efforts.  Below is a brief summary of what
   options an implementer has to reduce the bandwidth requirements of a
   public key-based key exchange.  Note that many of the standardized
   extensions are not readily available in TLS/DTLS stacks since
   optimizations typically get implemented last.

   *  Use elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) instead of RSA-based
      certificate due to the smaller certificate size.  This document
      recommends the use of elliptic curve cryptography only.
   *  Avoid deep and complex CA hierarchies to reduce the number of
      subordinate CA certificates that need to be transmitted and
      processed.  See [I-D.irtf-t2trg-taxonomy-manufacturer-anchors] for
      a discussion about CA hierarchies.
   *  Pay attention to the amount of information conveyed inside
      certificates.

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   *  Use session resumption to reduce the number of times a full
      handshake is needed.  Use Connection IDs [RFC9146], when possible,
      to enable long-lasting connections.
   *  Use the TLS cached info [RFC7924] extension to avoid sending
      certificates with every full handshake.
   *  Use client certificate URLs [RFC6066] instead of full certificates
      for clients.  When applications perform TLS client authentication
      via DNS-Based Authentication of Named Entities (DANE) TLSA records
      then the [I-D.ietf-dance-tls-clientid] specification may be used
      to reduce the packets on the wire.  Note: The term "TLSA" does not
      stand for anything; it is just the name of the RRtype, as
      explained in [RFC6698].
   *  Use certificate compression as defined in [RFC8879].
   *  Use alternative certificate formats, where possible, such as raw
      public keys [RFC7250] or CBOR-encoded certificates
      [I-D.ietf-cose-cbor-encoded-cert].

   The use of certificate handles, as introduced in cTLS
   [I-D.ietf-tls-ctls], is a form of caching or compressing certificates
   as well.

   Whether to utilize any of the above extensions or a combination of
   them depends on the anticipated deployment environment, the
   availability of code, and the constraints imposed by already deployed
   infrastructure (e.g., CA infrastructure, tool support).

18.  Ciphersuites

   According to Section 4.5.3 of [DTLS13], the use of AES-CCM with
   8-octet authentication tags (CCM_8) is considered unsuitable for
   general use with DTLS.  This is because it has low integrity limits
   (i.e., high sensitivity to forgeries) which makes endpoints that
   negotiate ciphersuites based on such AEAD vulnerable to a trivial DoS
   attack.  See also Sections 5.3 and 5.4 of [I-D.irtf-cfrg-aead-limits]
   for further discussion on this topic, as well as references to the
   analysis supporting these conclusions.

   Specifically, [DTLS13] warns that:

> TLS_AES_128_CCM_8_SHA256 MUST NOT be used in DTLS without additional
> safeguards against forgery. Implementations MUST set usage limits for
> AEAD_AES_128_CCM_8 based on an understanding of any additional forgery
> protections that are used.

   Since all the ciphersuites required by [RFC7925] and [CoAP] rely on
   CCM_8, there is no alternate ciphersuite available for applications
   that aim to eliminate the security and availability threats related
   to CCM_8 while retaining interoperability with the larger ecosystem.

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   In order to ameliorate the situation, this document RECOMMENDS that
   implementations support the following two ciphersuites:

   *  TLS_ECDHE_ECDSA_WITH_AES_128_GCM_SHA256
   *  TLS_ECDHE_ECDSA_WITH_AES_128_CCM

   and offer them as their first choice.  These ciphersuites provide
   confidentiality and integrity limits that are considered acceptable
   in the most general settings.  For the details on the exact bounds of
   both ciphersuites see Section 4.5.3 of [DTLS13].  Note that the GCM-
   based ciphersuite offers superior interoperability with cloud
   services at the cost of a slight increase in the wire and peak RAM
   footprints.

   When the GCM-based ciphersuite is used with TLS 1.2, the
   recommendations in Section 7.2.1 of [RFC9325] related to
   deterministic nonce generation apply.  In addition, the integrity
   limits on key usage detailed in Section 4.4 of [RFC9325] also apply.

   Table 1 summarizes the recommendations regarding ciphersuites:

   +=========================================+=============+
   | Ciphersuite                             | Requirement |
   +=========================================+=============+
   | TLS_AES_128_CCM_8_SHA256                | MUST-       |
   +-----------------------------------------+-------------+
   | TLS_ECDHE_ECDSA_WITH_AES_128_CCM        | SHOULD+     |
   +-----------------------------------------+-------------+
   | TLS_ECDHE_ECDSA_WITH_AES_128_GCM_SHA256 | SHOULD+     |
   +-----------------------------------------+-------------+

               Table 1: Ciphersuite requirements

19.  Fault Attacks on Deterministic Signature Schemes

   A number of passive side-channel attacks as well as active fault-
   injection attacks (e.g., [Ambrose2017]) have been demonstrated to be
   successful in allowing a malicious third party to gain information
   about the signing key if a fully deterministic signature scheme
   (e.g., [RFC6979] ECDSA or EdDSA [RFC8032]) is used.

   Most of these attacks assume physical access to the device and are
   therefore especially relevant to smart cards as well as IoT
   deployments with poor or non-existent physical security.

   In this security model, it is recommended to combine both randomness
   and determinism, for example, as described in
   [I-D.irtf-cfrg-det-sigs-with-noise].

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20.  Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) Considerations

   As detailed in [I-D.ietf-pquip-pqc-engineers], the IETF is actively
   working to address the challenges of adopting PQC in various
   protocols, including TLS.  The document highlights key aspects
   engineers must consider, such as algorithm selection, performance
   impacts, and deployment strategies.  It emphasizes the importance of
   gradual integration of PQC to ensure secure communication while
   accounting for the increased computational, memory, and bandwidth
   requirements of PQC algorithms.  These challenges are especially
   relevant in the context of IoT, where device constraints limit the
   adoption of larger key sizes and more complex cryptographic
   operations [PQC-PERF].  Besides, any choice need to careful evaluate
   the associated energy requirements [PQC-ENERGY].

   Incorporating PQC into TLS is still ongoing, with key exchange
   message sizes increasing due to larger public keys.  These larger
   keys demand more flash storage and higher RAM usage, presenting
   significant obstacles for resource-constrained IoT devices.  The
   transition from classical cryptographic algorithms to PQC will be a
   significant challenge for constrained IoT devices, requiring careful
   planning to select hardware suitable for the task considering the
   lifetime of an IoT product.

21.  Open Issues

   A list of open issues can be found at https://github.com/thomas-
   fossati/draft-tls13-iot/issues

22.  Security Considerations

   This entire document is about security.

23.  IANA Considerations

   This document makes no requests to IANA.

24.  References

24.1.  Normative References

   [DTLS13]   Rescorla, E., Tschofenig, H., and N. Modadugu, "The
              Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) Protocol Version
              1.3", RFC 9147, DOI 10.17487/RFC9147, April 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9147>.

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   [I-D.ietf-tls-dtls-rrc]
              Tschofenig, H., Kraus, A., and T. Fossati, "Return
              Routability Check for DTLS 1.2 and DTLS 1.3", Work in
              Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-tls-dtls-rrc-12, 24
              September 2024, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/
              draft-ietf-tls-dtls-rrc-12>.

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2119>.

   [RFC5280]  Cooper, D., Santesson, S., Farrell, S., Boeyen, S.,
              Housley, R., and W. Polk, "Internet X.509 Public Key
              Infrastructure Certificate and Certificate Revocation List
              (CRL) Profile", RFC 5280, DOI 10.17487/RFC5280, May 2008,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5280>.

   [RFC5480]  Turner, S., Brown, D., Yiu, K., Housley, R., and T. Polk,
              "Elliptic Curve Cryptography Subject Public Key
              Information", RFC 5480, DOI 10.17487/RFC5480, March 2009,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5480>.

   [RFC5758]  Dang, Q., Santesson, S., Moriarty, K., Brown, D., and T.
              Polk, "Internet X.509 Public Key Infrastructure:
              Additional Algorithms and Identifiers for DSA and ECDSA",
              RFC 5758, DOI 10.17487/RFC5758, January 2010,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5758>.

   [RFC7925]  Tschofenig, H., Ed. and T. Fossati, "Transport Layer
              Security (TLS) / Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS)
              Profiles for the Internet of Things", RFC 7925,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7925, July 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7925>.

   [RFC8174]  Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
              2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
              May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8174>.

   [RFC8221]  Wouters, P., Migault, D., Mattsson, J., Nir, Y., and T.
              Kivinen, "Cryptographic Algorithm Implementation
              Requirements and Usage Guidance for Encapsulating Security
              Payload (ESP) and Authentication Header (AH)", RFC 8221,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8221, October 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8221>.

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   [RFC8446]  Rescorla, E., "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol
              Version 1.3", RFC 8446, DOI 10.17487/RFC8446, August 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8446>.

   [RFC8449]  Thomson, M., "Record Size Limit Extension for TLS",
              RFC 8449, DOI 10.17487/RFC8449, August 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8449>.

   [RFC9258]  Benjamin, D. and C. A. Wood, "Importing External Pre-
              Shared Keys (PSKs) for TLS 1.3", RFC 9258,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9258, July 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9258>.

   [RFC9325]  Sheffer, Y., Saint-Andre, P., and T. Fossati,
              "Recommendations for Secure Use of Transport Layer
              Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport Layer Security
              (DTLS)", BCP 195, RFC 9325, DOI 10.17487/RFC9325, November
              2022, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9325>.

   [RFC9525]  Saint-Andre, P. and R. Salz, "Service Identity in TLS",
              RFC 9525, DOI 10.17487/RFC9525, November 2023,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9525>.

   [TLS13]    Rescorla, E., "The Transport Layer Security (TLS) Protocol
              Version 1.3", RFC 8446, DOI 10.17487/RFC8446, August 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8446>.

24.2.  Informative References

   [ADD]      IETF, "Adaptive DNS Discovery (add) Working Group",
              September 2023,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/add/about/>.

   [Ambrose2017]
              Ambrose, C., Bos, J. W., Fay, B., Joye, M., Lochter, M.,
              and B. Murray, "Differential Attacks on Deterministic
              Signatures", 2017, <https://eprint.iacr.org/2017/975.pdf>.

   [CoAP]     Shelby, Z., Hartke, K., and C. Bormann, "The Constrained
              Application Protocol (CoAP)", RFC 7252,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7252, June 2014,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7252>.

   [FDO]      FIDO Alliance, "FIDO Device Onboard Specification 1.1",
              April 2022, <https://fidoalliance.org/specifications/
              download-iot-specifications/>.

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   [I-D.ietf-cose-cbor-encoded-cert]
              Mattsson, J. P., Selander, G., Raza, S., Höglund, J., and
              M. Furuhed, "CBOR Encoded X.509 Certificates (C509
              Certificates)", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-
              ietf-cose-cbor-encoded-cert-11, 8 July 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-cose-
              cbor-encoded-cert-11>.

   [I-D.ietf-dance-tls-clientid]
              Huque, S. and V. Dukhovni, "TLS Extension for DANE Client
              Identity", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-
              dance-tls-clientid-03, 8 January 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-dance-
              tls-clientid-03>.

   [I-D.ietf-httpbis-secondary-server-certs]
              Gorbaty, E. and M. Bishop, "Secondary Certificate
              Authentication of HTTP Servers", Work in Progress,
              Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-httpbis-secondary-server-certs-
              01, 12 October 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-httpbis-
              secondary-server-certs-01>.

   [I-D.ietf-pquip-pqc-engineers]
              Banerjee, A., Reddy.K, T., Schoinianakis, D., Hollebeek,
              T., and M. Ounsworth, "Post-Quantum Cryptography for
              Engineers", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-ietf-
              pquip-pqc-engineers-05, 12 September 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-pquip-
              pqc-engineers-05>.

   [I-D.ietf-tls-ctls]
              Rescorla, E., Barnes, R., Tschofenig, H., and B. M.
              Schwartz, "Compact TLS 1.3", Work in Progress, Internet-
              Draft, draft-ietf-tls-ctls-10, 17 April 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-tls-
              ctls-10>.

   [I-D.ietf-tls-esni]
              Rescorla, E., Oku, K., Sullivan, N., and C. A. Wood, "TLS
              Encrypted Client Hello", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft,
              draft-ietf-tls-esni-22, 15 September 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-tls-
              esni-22>.

   [I-D.irtf-cfrg-aead-limits]
              Günther, F., Thomson, M., and C. A. Wood, "Usage Limits on
              AEAD Algorithms", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-

Tschofenig, et al.        Expires 23 April 2025                [Page 24]
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              irtf-cfrg-aead-limits-09, 9 October 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-irtf-cfrg-
              aead-limits-09>.

   [I-D.irtf-cfrg-det-sigs-with-noise]
              Mattsson, J. P., Thormarker, E., and S. Ruohomaa, "Hedged
              ECDSA and EdDSA Signatures", Work in Progress, Internet-
              Draft, draft-irtf-cfrg-det-sigs-with-noise-03, 16 March
              2024, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-irtf-
              cfrg-det-sigs-with-noise-03>.

   [I-D.irtf-cfrg-hpke]
              Barnes, R., Bhargavan, K., Lipp, B., and C. A. Wood,
              "Hybrid Public Key Encryption", Work in Progress,
              Internet-Draft, draft-irtf-cfrg-hpke-12, 2 September 2021,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-irtf-cfrg-
              hpke-12>.

   [I-D.irtf-t2trg-taxonomy-manufacturer-anchors]
              Richardson, M., "A Taxonomy of operational security
              considerations for manufacturer installed keys and Trust
              Anchors", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-irtf-
              t2trg-taxonomy-manufacturer-anchors-04, 26 August 2024,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-irtf-t2trg-
              taxonomy-manufacturer-anchors-04>.

   [LwM2M]    OMA SpecWorks, "Lightweight Machine to Machine (LwM2M)
              V.1.2.1 Technical Specification: Transport Bindings",
              December 2022,
              <https://openmobilealliance.org/release/LightweightM2M/
              V1_2_1-20221209-A/>.

   [PQC-ENERGY]
              Tasopoulos, G., Dimopoulos, C., Fournaris, A., Zhao, R.,
              Sakzad, A., and R. Steinfeld, "Energy Consumption
              Evaluation of Post-Quantum TLS 1.3 for Resource-
              Constrained Embedded Devices", ACM, Proceedings of the
              20th ACM International Conference on Computing Frontiers,
              DOI 10.1145/3587135.3592821, May 2023,
              <https://doi.org/10.1145/3587135.3592821>.

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   [PQC-PERF] Tasopoulos, G., Li, J., Fournaris, A., Zhao, R., Sakzad,
              A., and R. Steinfeld, "Performance Evaluation of Post-
              Quantum TLS 1.3 on Resource-Constrained Embedded Systems",
              Springer International Publishing, Lecture Notes in
              Computer Science pp. 432-451,
              DOI 10.1007/978-3-031-21280-2_24, ISBN ["9783031212796",
              "9783031212802"], 2022,
              <https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21280-2_24>.

   [RFC4279]  Eronen, P., Ed. and H. Tschofenig, Ed., "Pre-Shared Key
              Ciphersuites for Transport Layer Security (TLS)",
              RFC 4279, DOI 10.17487/RFC4279, December 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4279>.

   [RFC5216]  Simon, D., Aboba, B., and R. Hurst, "The EAP-TLS
              Authentication Protocol", RFC 5216, DOI 10.17487/RFC5216,
              March 2008, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5216>.

   [RFC5746]  Rescorla, E., Ray, M., Dispensa, S., and N. Oskov,
              "Transport Layer Security (TLS) Renegotiation Indication
              Extension", RFC 5746, DOI 10.17487/RFC5746, February 2010,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc5746>.

   [RFC6066]  Eastlake 3rd, D., "Transport Layer Security (TLS)
              Extensions: Extension Definitions", RFC 6066,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6066, January 2011,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6066>.

   [RFC6698]  Hoffman, P. and J. Schlyter, "The DNS-Based Authentication
              of Named Entities (DANE) Transport Layer Security (TLS)
              Protocol: TLSA", RFC 6698, DOI 10.17487/RFC6698, August
              2012, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6698>.

   [RFC6979]  Pornin, T., "Deterministic Usage of the Digital Signature
              Algorithm (DSA) and Elliptic Curve Digital Signature
              Algorithm (ECDSA)", RFC 6979, DOI 10.17487/RFC6979, August
              2013, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc6979>.

   [RFC7030]  Pritikin, M., Ed., Yee, P., Ed., and D. Harkins, Ed.,
              "Enrollment over Secure Transport", RFC 7030,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7030, October 2013,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7030>.

   [RFC7250]  Wouters, P., Ed., Tschofenig, H., Ed., Gilmore, J.,
              Weiler, S., and T. Kivinen, "Using Raw Public Keys in
              Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Datagram Transport
              Layer Security (DTLS)", RFC 7250, DOI 10.17487/RFC7250,
              June 2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7250>.

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   [RFC7858]  Hu, Z., Zhu, L., Heidemann, J., Mankin, A., Wessels, D.,
              and P. Hoffman, "Specification for DNS over Transport
              Layer Security (TLS)", RFC 7858, DOI 10.17487/RFC7858, May
              2016, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7858>.

   [RFC7924]  Santesson, S. and H. Tschofenig, "Transport Layer Security
              (TLS) Cached Information Extension", RFC 7924,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7924, July 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc7924>.

   [RFC8032]  Josefsson, S. and I. Liusvaara, "Edwards-Curve Digital
              Signature Algorithm (EdDSA)", RFC 8032,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8032, January 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8032>.

   [RFC8094]  Reddy, T., Wing, D., and P. Patil, "DNS over Datagram
              Transport Layer Security (DTLS)", RFC 8094,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC8094, February 2017,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8094>.

   [RFC8484]  Hoffman, P. and P. McManus, "DNS Queries over HTTPS
              (DoH)", RFC 8484, DOI 10.17487/RFC8484, October 2018,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8484>.

   [RFC8879]  Ghedini, A. and V. Vasiliev, "TLS Certificate
              Compression", RFC 8879, DOI 10.17487/RFC8879, December
              2020, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8879>.

   [RFC8995]  Pritikin, M., Richardson, M., Eckert, T., Behringer, M.,
              and K. Watsen, "Bootstrapping Remote Secure Key
              Infrastructure (BRSKI)", RFC 8995, DOI 10.17487/RFC8995,
              May 2021, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8995>.

   [RFC9019]  Moran, B., Tschofenig, H., Brown, D., and M. Meriac, "A
              Firmware Update Architecture for Internet of Things",
              RFC 9019, DOI 10.17487/RFC9019, April 2021,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9019>.

   [RFC9146]  Rescorla, E., Ed., Tschofenig, H., Ed., Fossati, T., and
              A. Kraus, "Connection Identifier for DTLS 1.2", RFC 9146,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9146, March 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9146>.

   [RFC9150]  Cam-Winget, N. and J. Visoky, "TLS 1.3 Authentication and
              Integrity-Only Cipher Suites", RFC 9150,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9150, April 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9150>.

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   [RFC9190]  Preuß Mattsson, J. and M. Sethi, "EAP-TLS 1.3: Using the
              Extensible Authentication Protocol with TLS 1.3",
              RFC 9190, DOI 10.17487/RFC9190, February 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9190>.

   [RFC9261]  Sullivan, N., "Exported Authenticators in TLS", RFC 9261,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9261, July 2022,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9261>.

   [RFC9483]  Brockhaus, H., von Oheimb, D., and S. Fries, "Lightweight
              Certificate Management Protocol (CMP) Profile", RFC 9483,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC9483, November 2023,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9483>.

   [_8021AR]  IEEE, "IEEE Standard for Local and metropolitan area
              networks – Secure Device Identity, IEEE 802.1AR-2018",
              August 2018, <https://1.ieee802.org/security/802-1ar>.

Acknowledgments

   We would like to thank Ben Kaduk, Hendrik Brockhaus, and John
   Mattsson.

Contributors

   Juliusz Sosinowicz

   Achim Kraus

Authors' Addresses

   Hannes Tschofenig
   University of Applied Sciences Bonn-Rhein-Sieg
   Germany
   Email: Hannes.Tschofenig@gmx.net

   Thomas Fossati
   Linaro
   Email: Thomas.Fossati@linaro.com

   Michael Richardson
   Sandelman Software Works
   Email: mcr+ietf@sandelman.ca

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