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Verifiable Distributed Aggregation Functions
draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf-03

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This is an older version of an Internet-Draft whose latest revision state is "Active".
Authors Richard Barnes , Christopher Patton , Phillipp Schoppmann
Last updated 2022-08-24 (Latest revision 2022-07-11)
Replaces draft-patton-cfrg-vdaf
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draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf-03
CFRG                                                        R. L. Barnes
Internet-Draft                                                     Cisco
Intended status: Informational                                 C. Patton
Expires: 25 February 2023                                     Cloudflare
                                                           P. Schoppmann
                                                                  Google
                                                          24 August 2022

              Verifiable Distributed Aggregation Functions
                        draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf-03

Abstract

   This document describes Verifiable Distributed Aggregation Functions
   (VDAFs), a family of multi-party protocols for computing aggregate
   statistics over user measurements.  These protocols are designed to
   ensure that, as long as at least one aggregation server executes the
   protocol honestly, individual measurements are never seen by any
   server in the clear.  At the same time, VDAFs allow the servers to
   detect if a malicious or misconfigured client submitted an input that
   would result in an incorrect aggregate result.

Discussion Venues

   This note is to be removed before publishing as an RFC.

   Discussion of this document takes place on the Crypto Forum Research
   Group mailing list (cfrg@ietf.org), which is archived at
   https://mailarchive.ietf.org/arch/search/?email_list=cfrg.

   Source for this draft and an issue tracker can be found at
   https://github.com/cjpatton/vdaf.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

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   This Internet-Draft will expire on 25 February 2023.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2022 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/
   license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document.
   Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
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   provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
     1.1.  Change Log  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
   2.  Conventions and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   8
   3.  Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   4.  Definition of DAFs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
     4.1.  Sharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13
     4.2.  Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
     4.3.  Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  14
     4.4.  Unsharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  15
     4.5.  Execution of a DAF  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  16
   5.  Definition of VDAFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  17
     5.1.  Sharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  18
     5.2.  Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
     5.3.  Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
     5.4.  Unsharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
     5.5.  Execution of a VDAF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
   6.  Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
     6.1.  Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
       6.1.1.  Auxiliary Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
       6.1.2.  FFT-Friendly Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
       6.1.3.  Parameters  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  26
     6.2.  Pseudorandom Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  28
       6.2.1.  PrgAes128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  29
   7.  Prio3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  30
     7.1.  Fully Linear Proof (FLP) Systems  . . . . . . . . . . . .  31
       7.1.1.  Encoding the Input  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  34
     7.2.  Construction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  35
       7.2.1.  Sharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  36
       7.2.2.  Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  39
       7.2.3.  Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41

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       7.2.4.  Unsharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41
       7.2.5.  Auxiliary Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  41
     7.3.  A General-Purpose FLP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44
       7.3.1.  Overview  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  44
       7.3.2.  Validity Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  47
       7.3.3.  Construction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  49
     7.4.  Instantiations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  52
       7.4.1.  Prio3Aes128Count  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  53
       7.4.2.  Prio3Aes128Sum  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  54
       7.4.3.  Prio3Aes128Histogram  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  55
   8.  Poplar1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  57
     8.1.  Incremental Distributed Point Functions (IDPFs) . . . . .  58
     8.2.  Construction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  60
       8.2.1.  Client  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  61
       8.2.2.  Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  63
       8.2.3.  Aggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  65
       8.2.4.  Unsharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  65
       8.2.5.  Auxiliary Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  66
     8.3.  The IDPF scheme of BBCGGI21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  67
       8.3.1.  Key Generation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  68
       8.3.2.  Key Evaluation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  69
       8.3.3.  Auxiliary Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  71
     8.4.  Poplar1Aes128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  72
   9.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  72
   10. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  74
   11. References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  75
     11.1.  Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  75
     11.2.  Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  75
   Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  76
   Test Vectors  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  76
     Prio3Aes128Count  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  77
     Prio3Aes128Sum  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  77
     Prio3Aes128Histogram  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  78
     Poplar1Aes128 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  80
       Sharding  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  80
       Preparation, Aggregation, and Unsharding  . . . . . . . . . .  80
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  85

1.  Introduction

   The ubiquity of the Internet makes it an ideal platform for
   measurement of large-scale phenomena, whether public health trends or
   the behavior of computer systems at scale.  There is substantial
   overlap, however, between information that is valuable to measure and
   information that users consider private.

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   For example, consider an application that provides health information
   to users.  The operator of an application might want to know which
   parts of their application are used most often, as a way to guide
   future development of the application.  Specific users' patterns of
   usage, though, could reveal sensitive things about them, such as
   which users are researching a given health condition.

   In many situations, the measurement collector is only interested in
   aggregate statistics, e.g., which portions of an application are most
   used or what fraction of people have experienced a given disease.
   Thus systems that provide aggregate statistics while protecting
   individual measurements can deliver the value of the measurements
   while protecting users' privacy.

   Most prior approaches to this problem fall under the rubric of
   "differential privacy (DP)" [Dwo06].  Roughly speaking, a data
   aggregation system that is differentially private ensures that the
   degree to which any individual measurement influences the value of
   the aggregate result can be precisely controlled.  For example, in
   systems like RAPPOR [EPK14], each user samples noise from a well-
   known distribution and adds it to their input before submitting to
   the aggregation server.  The aggregation server then adds up the
   noisy inputs, and because it knows the distribution from whence the
   noise was sampled, it can estimate the true sum with reasonable
   precision.

   Differentially private systems like RAPPOR are easy to deploy and
   provide a useful guarantee.  On its own, however, DP falls short of
   the strongest privacy property one could hope for.  Specifically,
   depending on the "amount" of noise a client adds to its input, it may
   be possible for a curious aggregator to make a reasonable guess of
   the input's true value.  Indeed, the more noise the clients add, the
   less reliable will be the server's estimate of the output.  Thus
   systems employing DP techniques alone must strike a delicate balance
   between privacy and utility.

   The ideal goal for a privacy-preserving measurement system is that of
   secure multi-party computation (MPC): No participant in the protocol
   should learn anything about an individual input beyond what it can
   deduce from the aggregate.  In this document, we describe Verifiable
   Distributed Aggregation Functions (VDAFs) as a general class of
   protocols that achieve this goal.

   VDAF schemes achieve their privacy goal by distributing the
   computation of the aggregate among a number of non-colluding
   aggregation servers.  As long as a subset of the servers executes the
   protocol honestly, VDAFs guarantee that no input is ever accessible
   to any party besides the client that submitted it.  At the same time,

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   VDAFs are "verifiable" in the sense that malformed inputs that would
   otherwise garble the output of the computation can be detected and
   removed from the set of input measurements.

   In addition to these MPC-style security goals, VDAFs can be composed
   with various mechanisms for differential privacy, thereby providing
   the added assurance that the aggregate result itself does not leak
   too much information about any one measurement.

      TODO(issue #94) Provide guidance for local and central DP and
      point to it here.

   The cost of achieving these security properties is the need for
   multiple servers to participate in the protocol, and the need to
   ensure they do not collude to undermine the VDAF's privacy
   guarantees.  Recent implementation experience has shown that
   practical challenges of coordinating multiple servers can be
   overcome.  The Prio system [CGB17] (essentially a VDAF) has been
   deployed in systems supporting hundreds of millions of users: The
   Mozilla Origin Telemetry project [OriginTelemetry] and the Exposure
   Notification Private Analytics collaboration among the Internet
   Security Research Group (ISRG), Google, Apple, and others [ENPA].

   The VDAF abstraction laid out in Section 5 represents a class of
   multi-party protocols for privacy-preserving measurement proposed in
   the literature.  These protocols vary in their operational and
   security considerations, sometimes in subtle but consequential ways.
   This document therefore has two important goals:

   1.  Providing higher-level protocols like [DAP] with a simple,
       uniform interface for accessing privacy-preserving measurement
       schemes, and documenting relevant operational and security bounds
       for that interface:

       1.  General patterns of communications among the various actors
           involved in the system (clients, aggregation servers, and the
           collector of the aggregate result);

       2.  Capabilities of a malicious coalition of servers attempting
           to divulge information about client measurements; and

       3.  Conditions that are necessary to ensure that malicious
           clients cannot corrupt the computation.

   2.  Providing cryptographers with design criteria that provide a
       clear deployment roadmap for new constructions.

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   This document also specifies two concrete VDAF schemes, each based on
   a protocol from the literature.

   *  The aforementioned Prio system [CGB17] allows for the privacy-
      preserving computation of a variety aggregate statistics.  The
      basic idea underlying Prio is fairly simple:

      1.  Each client shards its measurement into a sequence of additive
          shares and distributes the shares among the aggregation
          servers.

      2.  Next, each server adds up its shares locally, resulting in an
          additive share of the aggregate.

      3.  Finally, the aggregation servers send their aggregate shares
          to the data collector, who combines them to obtain the
          aggregate result.

      The difficult part of this system is ensuring that the servers
      hold shares of a valid input, e.g., the input is an integer in a
      specific range.  Thus Prio specifies a multi-party protocol for
      accomplishing this task.

      In Section 7 we describe Prio3, a VDAF that follows the same
      overall framework as the original Prio protocol, but incorporates
      techniques introduced in [BBCGGI19] that result in significant
      performance gains.

   *  More recently, Boneh et al.  [BBCGGI21] described a protocol
      called Poplar for solving the t-heavy-hitters problem in a
      privacy-preserving manner.  Here each client holds a bit-string of
      length n, and the goal of the aggregation servers is to compute
      the set of inputs that occur at least t times.  The core primitive
      used in their protocol is a specialized Distributed Point Function
      (DPF) [GI14] that allows the servers to "query" their DPF shares
      on any bit-string of length shorter than or equal to n.  As a
      result of this query, each of the servers has an additive share of
      a bit indicating whether the string is a prefix of the client's
      input.  The protocol also specifies a multi-party computation for
      verifying that at most one string among a set of candidates is a
      prefix of the client's input.

      In Section 8 we describe a VDAF called Poplar1 that implements
      this functionality.

   Finally, perhaps the most complex aspect of schemes like Prio3 and
   Poplar1 is the process by which the client-generated measurements are
   prepared for aggregation.  Because these constructions are based on

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   secret sharing, the servers will be required to exchange some amount
   of information in order to verify the measurement is valid and can be
   aggregated.  Depending on the construction, this process may require
   multiple round trips over the network.

   There are applications in which this verification step may not be
   necessary, e.g., when the client's software is run a trusted
   execution environment.  To support these applications, this document
   also defines Distributed Aggregation Functions (DAFs) as a simpler
   class of protocols that aim to provide the same privacy guarantee as
   VDAFs but fall short of being verifiable.

      OPEN ISSUE Decide if we should give one or two example DAFs.
      There are natural variants of Prio3 and Poplar1 that might be
      worth describing.

   The remainder of this document is organized as follows: Section 3
   gives a brief overview of DAFs and VDAFs; Section 4 defines the
   syntax for DAFs; Section 5 defines the syntax for VDAFs; Section 6
   defines various functionalities that are common to our constructions;
   Section 7 describes the Prio3 construction; Section 8 describes the
   Poplar1 construction; and Section 9 enumerates the security
   considerations for VDAFs.

1.1.  Change Log

   (*) Indicates a change that breaks wire compatibility with the
   previous draft.

   03:

   *  Define codepoints for (V)DAFs and use them for domain separation
      in Prio3 and Poplar1. (*)

   *  Prio3: Align joint randomness computation with revised paper
      [BBCGGI19].  This change mitigates an attack on robustness. (*)

   *  Prio3: Remove an intermediate PRG evaluation from query randomness
      generation. (*)

   *  Add additional guidance for choosing FFT-friendly fields.

   02:

   *  Complete the initial specification of Poplar1.

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   *  Extend (V)DAF syntax to include a "public share" output by the
      Client and distributed to all of the Aggregators.  This is to
      accommodate "extractable" IDPFs as required for Poplar1.  (See
      [BBCGGI21], Section 4.3 for details.)

   *  Extend (V)DAF syntax to allow the unsharding step to take into
      account the number of measurements aggregated.

   *  Extend FLP syntax by adding a method for decoding the aggregate
      result from a vector of field elements.  The new method takes into
      account the number of measurements.

   *  Prio3: Align aggregate result computation with updated FLP syntax.

   *  Prg: Add a method for statefully generating a vector of field
      elements.

   *  Field: Require that field elements are fully reduced before
      decoding. (*)

   *  Define new field Field255.

   01:

   *  Require that VDAFs specify serialization of aggregate shares.

   *  Define Distributed Aggregation Functions (DAFs).

   *  Prio3: Move proof verifier check from prep_next() to
      prep_shares_to_prep(). (*)

   *  Remove public parameter and replace verification parameter with a
      "verification key" and "Aggregator ID".

2.  Conventions and Definitions

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
   "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in
   BCP 14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
   capitals, as shown here.

   Algorithms in this document are written in Python 3.  Type hints are
   used to define input and output types.  A fatal error in a program
   (e.g., failure to parse one of the function parameters) is usually
   handled by raising an exception.

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   A variable with type Bytes is a byte string.  This document defines
   several byte-string constants.  When comprised of printable ASCII
   characters, they are written as Python 3 byte-string literals (e.g.,
   b'some constant string').

   A global constant VERSION is defined, which algorithms are free to
   use as desired.  Its value SHALL be b'vdaf-03'.

   This document describes algorithms for multi-party computations in
   which the parties typically communicate over a network.  Wherever a
   quantity is defined that must be be transmitted from one party to
   another, this document prescribes a particular encoding of that
   quantity as a byte string.

      OPEN ISSUE It might be better to not be prescriptive about how
      quantities are encoded on the wire.  See issue #58.

   Some common functionalities:

   *  zeros(len: Unsigned) -> Bytes returns an array of zero bytes.  The
      length of output MUST be len.

   *  gen_rand(len: Unsigned) -> Bytes returns an array of random bytes.
      The length of output MUST be len.

   *  byte(int: Unsigned) -> Bytes returns the representation of int as
      a byte string.  The value of int MUST be in [0,256).

   *  concat(parts: Vec[Bytes]) -> Bytes returns the concatenation of
      the input byte strings, i.e., parts[0] || ... || parts[len(parts)-
      1].

   *  xor(left: Bytes, right: Bytes) -> Bytes returns the bitwise XOR of
      left and right.  An exception is raised if the inputs are not the
      same length.

   *  I2OSP and OS2IP from [RFC8017], which are used, respectively, to
      convert a non-negative integer to a byte string and convert a byte
      string to a non-negative integer.

   *  next_power_of_2(n: Unsigned) -> Unsigned returns the smallest
      integer greater than or equal to n that is also a power of two.

3.  Overview

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                    +--------------+
              +---->| Aggregator 0 |----+
              |     +--------------+    |
              |             ^           |
              |             |           |
              |             V           |
              |     +--------------+    |
              | +-->| Aggregator 1 |--+ |
              | |   +--------------+  | |
   +--------+-+ |           ^         | +->+-----------+
   | Client |---+           |         +--->| Collector |--> Aggregate
   +--------+-+                         +->+-----------+
              |            ...          |
              |                         |
              |             |           |
              |             V           |
              |    +----------------+   |
              +--->| Aggregator N-1 |---+
                   +----------------+

         Input shares           Aggregate shares

                  Figure 1: Overall data flow of a (V)DAF

   In a DAF- or VDAF-based private measurement system, we distinguish
   three types of actors: Clients, Aggregators, and Collectors.  The
   overall flow of the measurement process is as follows:

   *  To submit an individual measurement, the Client shards the
      measurement into "input shares" and sends one input share to each
      Aggregator.

   *  The Aggregators convert their input shares into "output shares".

      -  Output shares are in one-to-one correspondence with the input
         shares.

      -  Just as each Aggregator receives one input share of each input,
         at the end of this process, each aggregator holds one output
         share.

      -  In VDAFs, Aggregators will need to exchange information among
         themselves as part of the validation process.

   *  Each Aggregator combines the output shares across inputs in the
      batch to compute the "aggregate share" for that batch, i.e., its
      share of the desired aggregate result.

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   *  The Aggregators submit their aggregate shares to the Collector,
      who combines them to obtain the aggregate result over the batch.

   Aggregators are a new class of actor relative to traditional
   measurement systems where clients submit measurements to a single
   server.  They are critical for both the privacy properties of the
   system and, in the case of VDAFs, the correctness of the measurements
   obtained.  The privacy properties of the system are assured by non-
   collusion among Aggregators, and Aggregators are the entities that
   perform validation of Client measurements.  Thus clients trust
   Aggregators not to collude (typically it is required that at least
   one Aggregator is honest), and Collectors trust Aggregators to
   correctly run the protocol.

   Within the bounds of the non-collusion requirements of a given (V)DAF
   instance, it is possible for the same entity to play more than one
   role.  For example, the Collector could also act as an Aggregator,
   effectively using the other Aggregator(s) to augment a basic client-
   server protocol.

   In this document, we describe the computations performed by the
   actors in this system.  It is up to the higher-level protocol making
   use of the (V)DAF to arrange for the required information to be
   delivered to the proper actors in the proper sequence.  In general,
   we assume that all communications are confidential and mutually
   authenticated, with the exception that Clients submitting
   measurements may be anonymous.

4.  Definition of DAFs

   By way of a gentle introduction to VDAFs, this section describes a
   simpler class of schemes called Distributed Aggregation Functions
   (DAFs).  Unlike VDAFs, DAFs do not provide verifiability of the
   computation.  Clients must therefore be trusted to compute their
   input shares correctly.  Because of this fact, the use of a DAF is
   NOT RECOMMENDED for most applications.  See Section 9 for additional
   discussion.

   A DAF scheme is used to compute a particular "aggregation function"
   over a set of measurements generated by Clients.  Depending on the
   aggregation function, the Collector might select an "aggregation
   parameter" and disseminates it to the Aggregators.  The semantics of
   this parameter is specific to the aggregation function, but in
   general it is used to represent the set of "queries" that can be made
   on the measurement set.  For example, the aggregation parameter is
   used to represent the candidate prefixes in Poplar1 Section 8.

   Execution of a DAF has four distinct stages:

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   *  Sharding - Each Client generates input shares from its measurement
      and distributes them among the Aggregators.

   *  Preparation - Each Aggregator converts each input share into an
      output share compatible with the aggregation function.  This
      computation involves the aggregation parameter.  In general, each
      aggregation parameter may result in a different an output share.

   *  Aggregation - Each Aggregator combines a sequence of output shares
      into its aggregate share and sends the aggregate share to the
      Collector.

   *  Unsharding - The Collector combines the aggregate shares into the
      aggregate result.

   Sharding and Preparation are done once per measurement.  Aggregation
   and Unsharding are done over a batch of measurements (more precisely,
   over the recovered output shares).

   A concrete DAF specifies an algorithm for the computation needed in
   each of these stages.  The interface of each algorithm is defined in
   the remainder of this section.  In addition, a concrete DAF defines
   the associated constants and types enumerated in the following table.

           +=============+====================================+
           | Parameter   | Description                        |
           +=============+====================================+
           | ID          | Algorithm identifier for this DAF. |
           +-------------+------------------------------------+
           | SHARES      | Number of input shares into which  |
           |             | each measurement is sharded        |
           +-------------+------------------------------------+
           | Measurement | Type of each measurement           |
           +-------------+------------------------------------+
           | AggParam    | Type of aggregation parameter      |
           +-------------+------------------------------------+
           | OutShare    | Type of each output share          |
           +-------------+------------------------------------+
           | AggResult   | Type of the aggregate result       |
           +-------------+------------------------------------+

               Table 1: Constants and types defined by each
                              concrete DAF.

   These types define some of the inputs and outputs of DAF methods at
   various stages of the computation.  Observe that only the
   measurements, output shares, the aggregate result, and the
   aggregation parameter have an explicit type.  All other values --- in

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   particular, the input shares and the aggregate shares --- have type
   Bytes and are treated as opaque byte strings.  This is because these
   values must be transmitted between parties over a network.

      OPEN ISSUE It might be cleaner to define a type for each value,
      then have that type implement an encoding where necessary.  This
      way each method parameter has a meaningful type hint.  See
      issue#58.

   Each DAF is identified by a unique, 32-bit integer ID.  Identifiers
   for each (V)DAF specified in this document are defined in Table 16.

4.1.  Sharding

   In order to protect the privacy of its measurements, a DAF Client
   shards its measurements into a sequence of input shares.  The
   measurement_to_input_shares method is used for this purpose.

   *  Daf.measurement_to_input_shares(input: Measurement) -> (Bytes,
      Vec[Bytes]) is the randomized input-distribution algorithm run by
      each Client.  It consumes the measurement and produces a "public
      share", distributed to each of the Aggregators, and a
      corresponding sequence of input shares, one for each Aggregator.
      The length of the output vector MUST be SHARES.

       Client
       ======

       measurement
         |
         V
       +----------------------------------------------+
       | measurement_to_input_shares                  |
       +----------------------------------------------+
         |              |              ...  |
         V              V                   V
        input_share_0  input_share_1       input_share_[SHARES-1]
         |              |              ...  |
         V              V                   V
       Aggregator 0   Aggregator 1        Aggregator SHARES-1

       Figure 2: The Client divides its measurement into input shares
                  and distributes them to the Aggregators.

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4.2.  Preparation

   Once an Aggregator has received the public share and one of the input
   shares, the next step is to prepare the input share for aggregation.
   This is accomplished using the following algorithm:

   *  Daf.prep(agg_id: Unsigned, agg_param: AggParam, public_share:
      Bytes, input_share: Bytes) -> OutShare is the deterministic
      preparation algorithm.  It takes as input the public share and one
      of the input shares generated by a Client, the Aggregator's unique
      identifier, and the aggregation parameter selected by the
      Collector and returns an output share.

   The protocol in which the DAF is used MUST ensure that the
   Aggregator's identifier is equal to the integer in range [0, SHARES)
   that matches the index of input_share in the sequence of input shares
   output by the Client.

4.3.  Aggregation

   Once an Aggregator holds output shares for a batch of measurements
   (where batches are defined by the application), it combines them into
   a share of the desired aggregate result:

   *  Daf.out_shares_to_agg_share(agg_param: AggParam, out_shares:
      Vec[OutShare]) -> agg_share: Bytes is the deterministic
      aggregation algorithm.  It is run by each Aggregator a set of
      recovered output shares.

       Aggregator 0    Aggregator 1        Aggregator SHARES-1
       ============    ============        ===================

       out_share_0_0   out_share_1_0       out_share_[SHARES-1]_0
       out_share_0_1   out_share_1_1       out_share_[SHARES-1]_1
       out_share_0_2   out_share_1_2       out_share_[SHARES-1]_2
            ...             ...                     ...
       out_share_0_B   out_share_1_B       out_share_[SHARES-1]_B
         |               |                   |
         V               V                   V
       +-----------+   +-----------+       +-----------+
       | out2agg   |   | out2agg   |   ... | out2agg   |
       +-----------+   +-----------+       +-----------+
         |               |                   |
         V               V                   V
       agg_share_0     agg_share_1         agg_share_[SHARES-1]

    Figure 3: Aggregation of output shares. `B` indicates the number of
                         measurements in the batch.

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   For simplicity, we have written this algorithm in a "one-shot" form,
   where all output shares for a batch are provided at the same time.
   Many DAFs may also support a "streaming" form, where shares are
   processed one at a time.

      OPEN ISSUE It may be worthwhile to explicitly define the
      "streaming" API.  See issue#47.

4.4.  Unsharding

   After the Aggregators have aggregated a sufficient number of output
   shares, each sends its aggregate share to the Collector, who runs the
   following algorithm to recover the following output:

   *  Daf.agg_shares_to_result(agg_param: AggParam, agg_shares:
      Vec[Bytes], num_measurements: Unsigned) -> AggResult is run by the
      Collector in order to compute the aggregate result from the
      Aggregators' shares.  The length of agg_shares MUST be SHARES.
      num_measurements is the number of measurements that contributed to
      each of the aggregate shares.  This algorithm is deterministic.

       Aggregator 0    Aggregator 1        Aggregator SHARES-1
       ============    ============        ===================

       agg_share_0     agg_share_1         agg_share_[SHARES-1]
         |               |                   |
         V               V                   V
       +-----------------------------------------------+
       | agg_shares_to_result                          |
       +-----------------------------------------------+
         |
         V
       agg_result

       Collector
       =========

          Figure 4: Computation of the final aggregate result from
                             aggregate shares.

      QUESTION Maybe the aggregation algorithms should be randomized in
      order to allow the Aggregators (or the Collector) to add noise for
      differential privacy.  (See the security considerations of [DAP].)
      Or is this out-of-scope of this document?  See https://github.com/
      ietf-wg-ppm/ppm-specification/issues/19.

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4.5.  Execution of a DAF

   Securely executing a DAF involves emulating the following procedure.

  def run_daf(Daf,
              agg_param: Daf.AggParam,
              measurements: Vec[Daf.Measurement]):
      out_shares = [ [] for j in range(Daf.SHARES) ]
      for measurement in measurements:
          # Each Client shards its measurement into input shares and
          # distributes them among the Aggregators.
          (public_share, input_shares) = \
              Daf.measurement_to_input_shares(measurement)

          # Each Aggregator prepares its input share for aggregation.
          for j in range(Daf.SHARES):
              out_shares[j].append(
                  Daf.prep(j, agg_param, public_share, input_shares[j]))

      # Each Aggregator aggregates its output shares into an aggregate
      # share and sends it to the Collector.
      agg_shares = []
      for j in range(Daf.SHARES):
          agg_share_j = Daf.out_shares_to_agg_share(agg_param,
                                                    out_shares[j])
          agg_shares.append(agg_share_j)

      # Collector unshards the aggregate result.
      num_measurements = len(measurements)
      agg_result = Daf.agg_shares_to_result(agg_param, agg_shares,
                                            num_measurements)
      return agg_result

                      Figure 5: Execution of a DAF.

   The inputs to this procedure are the same as the aggregation function
   computed by the DAF: An aggregation parameter and a sequence of
   measurements.  The procedure prescribes how a DAF is executed in a
   "benign" environment in which there is no adversary and the messages
   are passed among the protocol participants over secure point-to-point
   channels.  In reality, these channels need to be instantiated by some
   "wrapper protocol", such as [DAP], that realizes these channels using
   suitable cryptographic mechanisms.  Moreover, some fraction of the
   Aggregators (or Clients) may be malicious and diverge from their
   prescribed behaviors.  Section 9 describes the execution of the DAF
   in various adversarial environments and what properties the wrapper
   protocol needs to provide in each.

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5.  Definition of VDAFs

   Like DAFs described in the previous section, a VDAF scheme is used to
   compute a particular aggregation function over a set of Client-
   generated measurements.  Evaluation of a VDAF involves the same four
   stages as for DAFs: Sharding, Preparation, Aggregation, and
   Unsharding.  However, the Preparation stage will require interaction
   among the Aggregators in order to facilitate verifiability of the
   computation's correctness.  Accommodating this interaction will
   require syntactic changes.

   Overall execution of a VDAF comprises the following stages:

   *  Sharding - Computing input shares from an individual measurement

   *  Preparation - Conversion and verification of input shares to
      output shares compatible with the aggregation function being
      computed

   *  Aggregation - Combining a sequence of output shares into an
      aggregate share

   *  Unsharding - Combining a sequence of aggregate shares into an
      aggregate result

   In contrast to DAFs, the Preparation stage for VDAFs now performs an
   additional task: Verification of the validity of the recovered output
   shares.  This process ensures that aggregating the output shares will
   not lead to a garbled aggregate result.

   The remainder of this section defines the VDAF interface.  The
   attributes are listed in Table 2 are defined by each concrete VDAF.

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      +=================+==========================================+
      | Parameter       | Description                              |
      +=================+==========================================+
      | ID              | Algorithm identifier for this VDAF.      |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | VERIFY_KEY_SIZE | Size (in bytes) of the verification key  |
      |                 | (Section 5.2)                            |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | ROUNDS          | Number of rounds of communication during |
      |                 | the Preparation stage (Section 5.2)      |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | SHARES          | Number of input shares into which each   |
      |                 | measurement is sharded (Section 5.1)     |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | Measurement     | Type of each measurement                 |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | AggParam        | Type of aggregation parameter            |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | Prep            | State of each Aggregator during          |
      |                 | Preparation (Section 5.2)                |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | OutShare        | Type of each output share                |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+
      | AggResult       | Type of the aggregate result             |
      +-----------------+------------------------------------------+

       Table 2: Constants and types defined by each concrete VDAF.

   Similarly to DAFs (see {[sec-daf}}), any output of a VDAF method that
   must be transmitted from one party to another is treated as an opaque
   byte string.  All other quantities are given a concrete type.

      OPEN ISSUE It might be cleaner to define a type for each value,
      then have that type implement an encoding where necessary.  See
      issue#58.

   Each VDAF is identified by a unique, 32-bit integer ID.  Identifiers
   for each (V)DAF specified in this document are defined in Table 16.

5.1.  Sharding

   Sharding is syntactically identical to DAFs (cf.  Section 4.1):

   *  Vdaf.measurement_to_input_shares(measurement: Measurement) ->
      (Bytes, Vec[Bytes]) is the randomized input-distribution algorithm
      run by each Client.  It consumes the measurement and produces a
      public share, distributed to each of Aggregators, and the
      corresponding sequence of input shares, one for each Aggregator.

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      Depending on the VDAF, the input shares may encode additional
      information used to verify the recovered output shares (e.g., the
      "proof shares" in Prio3 Section 7).  The length of the output
      vector MUST be SHARES.

5.2.  Preparation

   To recover and verify output shares, the Aggregators interact with
   one another over ROUNDS rounds.  Prior to each round, each Aggregator
   constructs an outbound message.  Next, the sequence of outbound
   messages is combined into a single message, called a "preparation
   message".  (Each of the outbound messages are called "preparation-
   message shares".)  Finally, the preparation message is distributed to
   the Aggregators to begin the next round.

   An Aggregator begins the first round with its input share and it
   begins each subsequent round with the previous preparation message.
   Its output in the last round is its output share and its output in
   each of the preceding rounds is a preparation-message share.

   This process involves a value called the "aggregation parameter" used
   to map the input shares to output shares.  The Aggregators need to
   agree on this parameter before they can begin preparing inputs for
   aggregation.

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       Aggregator 0   Aggregator 1        Aggregator SHARES-1
       ============   ============        ===================

       input_share_0  input_share_1       input_share_[SHARES-1]
         |              |              ...  |
         V              V                   V
       +-----------+  +-----------+       +-----------+
       | prep_init |  | prep_init |       | prep_init |
       +-----------+  +------------+      +-----------+
         |              |              ...  |             \
         V              V                   V             |
       +-----------+  +-----------+       +-----------+   |
       | prep_next |  | prep_next |       | prep_next |   |
       +-----------+  +-----------+       +-----------+   |
         |              |              ...  |             |
         V              V                   V             | x ROUNDS
       +----------------------------------------------+   |
       | prep_shares_to_prep                          |   |
       +----------------------------------------------+   |
                        |                                 |
         +--------------+-------------------+             |
         |              |              ...  |             |
         V              V                   V             /
        ...            ...                 ...
         |              |                   |
         V              V                   V
       +-----------+  +-----------+       +-----------+
       | prep_next |  | prep_next |       | prep_next |
       +-----------+  +-----------+       +-----------+
         |              |              ...  |
         V              V                   V
       out_share_0    out_share_1         out_share_[SHARES-1]

    Figure 6: VDAF preparation process on the input shares for a single
   measurement.  At the end of the computation, each Aggregator holds an
                         output share or an error.

   To facilitate the preparation process, a concrete VDAF implements the
   following class methods:

   *  Vdaf.prep_init(verify_key: Bytes, agg_id: Unsigned, agg_param:
      AggParam, nonce: Bytes, public_share: Bytes, input_share: Bytes)
      -> Prep is the deterministic preparation-state initialization
      algorithm run by each Aggregator to begin processing its input
      share into an output share.  Its inputs are the shared
      verification key (verify_key), the Aggregator's unique identifier
      (agg_id), the aggregation parameter (agg_param), the nonce
      provided by the environment (nonce, see Figure 7), and the public

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      share (public_share) and one of the input shares generated by the
      client (input_share).  Its output is the Aggregator's initial
      preparation state.

      The length of verify_key MUST be VERIFY_KEY_SIZE.  It is up to the
      high level protocol in which the VDAF is used to arrange for the
      distribution of the verification key among the Aggregators prior
      to the start of this phase of VDAF evaluation.

         OPEN ISSUE What security properties do we need for this key
         exchange?  See issue#18.

      Protocols using the VDAF MUST ensure that the Aggregator's
      identifier is equal to the integer in range [0, SHARES) that
      matches the index of input_share in the sequence of input shares
      output by the Client.  In addition, protocols MUST ensure that
      public share consumed by each of the Aggregators is identical.
      This is security critical for VDAFs such as Poplar1 that require
      an extractable distributed point function.  (See Section 8 for
      details.)

   *  Vdaf.prep_next(prep: Prep, inbound: Optional[Bytes]) ->
      Union[Tuple[Prep, Bytes], OutShare] is the deterministic
      preparation-state update algorithm run by each Aggregator.  It
      updates the Aggregator's preparation state (prep) and returns
      either its next preparation state and its message share for the
      current round or, if this is the last round, its output share.  An
      exception is raised if a valid output share could not be
      recovered.  The input of this algorithm is the inbound preparation
      message or, if this is the first round, None.

   *  Vdaf.prep_shares_to_prep(agg_param: AggParam, prep_shares:
      Vec[Bytes]) -> Bytes is the deterministic preparation-message pre-
      processing algorithm.  It combines the preparation-message shares
      generated by the Aggregators in the previous round into the
      preparation message consumed by each in the next round.

   In effect, each Aggregator moves through a linear state machine with
   ROUNDS+1 states.  The Aggregator enters the first state on using the
   initialization algorithm, and the update algorithm advances the
   Aggregator to the next state.  Thus, in addition to defining the
   number of rounds (ROUNDS), a VDAF instance defines the state of the
   Aggregator after each round.

      TODO Consider how to bake this "linear state machine" condition
      into the syntax.  Given that Python 3 is used as our pseudocode,
      it's easier to specify the preparation state using a class.

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   The preparation-state update accomplishes two tasks: recovery of
   output shares from the input shares and ensuring that the recovered
   output shares are valid.  The abstraction boundary is drawn so that
   an Aggregator only recovers an output share if it is deemed valid (at
   least, based on the Aggregator's view of the protocol).  Another way
   to draw this boundary would be to have the Aggregators recover output
   shares first, then verify that they are valid.  However, this would
   allow the possibility of misusing the API by, say, aggregating an
   invalid output share.  Moreover, in protocols like Prio+ [AGJOP21]
   based on oblivious transfer, it is necessary for the Aggregators to
   interact in order to recover aggregatable output shares at all.

   Note that it is possible for a VDAF to specify ROUNDS == 0, in which
   case each Aggregator runs the preparation-state update algorithm once
   and immediately recovers its output share without interacting with
   the other Aggregators.  However, most, if not all, constructions will
   require some amount of interaction in order to ensure validity of the
   output shares (while also maintaining privacy).

      OPEN ISSUE accommodating 0-round VDAFs may require syntax changes
      if, for example, public keys are required.  On the other hand, we
      could consider defining this class of schemes as a different
      primitive.  See issue#77.

5.3.  Aggregation

   VDAF Aggregation is identical to DAF Aggregation (cf.  Section 4.3):

   *  Vdaf.out_shares_to_agg_share(agg_param: AggParam, out_shares:
      Vec[OutShare]) -> agg_share: Bytes is the deterministic
      aggregation algorithm.  It is run by each Aggregator over the
      output shares it has computed over a batch of measurement inputs.

   The data flow for this stage is illustrated in Figure 3.  Here again,
   we have the aggregation algorithm in a "one-shot" form, where all
   shares for a batch are provided at the same time.  VDAFs typically
   also support a "streaming" form, where shares are processed one at a
   time.

5.4.  Unsharding

   VDAF Unsharding is identical to DAF Unsharding (cf.  Section 4.4):

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   *  Vdaf.agg_shares_to_result(agg_param: AggParam, agg_shares:
      Vec[Bytes], num_measurements: Unsigned) -> AggResult is run by the
      Collector in order to compute the aggregate result from the
      Aggregators' shares.  The length of agg_shares MUST be SHARES.
      num_measurements is the number of measurements that contributed to
      each of the aggregate shares.  This algorithm is deterministic.

   The data flow for this stage is illustrated in Figure 4.

5.5.  Execution of a VDAF

   Secure execution of a VDAF involves simulating the following
   procedure.

   def run_vdaf(Vdaf,
                agg_param: Vdaf.AggParam,
                nonces: Vec[Bytes],
                measurements: Vec[Vdaf.Measurement]):
       # Generate the long-lived verification key.
       verify_key = gen_rand(Vdaf.VERIFY_KEY_SIZE)

       out_shares = []
       for (nonce, measurement) in zip(nonces, measurements):
           # Each Client shards its measurement into input shares.
           (public_share, input_shares) = \
               Vdaf.measurement_to_input_shares(measurement)

           # Each Aggregator initializes its preparation state.
           prep_states = []
           for j in range(Vdaf.SHARES):
               state = Vdaf.prep_init(verify_key, j,
                                      agg_param,
                                      nonce,
                                      public_share,
                                      input_shares[j])
               prep_states.append(state)

           # Aggregators recover their output shares.
           inbound = None
           for i in range(Vdaf.ROUNDS+1):
               outbound = []
               for j in range(Vdaf.SHARES):
                   out = Vdaf.prep_next(prep_states[j], inbound)
                   if i < Vdaf.ROUNDS:
                       (prep_states[j], out) = out
                   outbound.append(out)
               # This is where we would send messages over the
               # network in a distributed VDAF computation.

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               if i < Vdaf.ROUNDS:
                   inbound = Vdaf.prep_shares_to_prep(agg_param,
                                                      outbound)

           # The final outputs of prepare phase are the output shares.
           out_shares.append(outbound)

       # Each Aggregator aggregates its output shares into an
       # aggregate share. In a distributed VDAF computation, the
       # aggregate shares are sent over the network.
       agg_shares = []
       for j in range(Vdaf.SHARES):
           out_shares_j = [out[j] for out in out_shares]
           agg_share_j = Vdaf.out_shares_to_agg_share(agg_param,
                                                      out_shares_j)
           agg_shares.append(agg_share_j)

       # Collector unshards the aggregate.
       num_measurements = len(measurements)
       agg_result = Vdaf.agg_shares_to_result(agg_param, agg_shares,
                                              num_measurements)
       return agg_result

                       Figure 7: Execution of a VDAF.

   The inputs to this algorithm are the aggregation parameter, a list of
   measurements, and a nonce for each measurement.  This document does
   not specify how the nonces are chosen, but security requires that the
   nonces be unique.  See Section 9 for details.  As explained in
   Section 4.5, the secure execution of a VDAF requires the application
   to instantiate secure channels between each of the protocol
   participants.

6.  Preliminaries

   This section describes the primitives that are common to the VDAFs
   specified in this document.

6.1.  Finite Fields

   Both Prio3 and Poplar1 use finite fields of prime order.  Finite
   field elements are represented by a class Field with the following
   associated parameters:

   *  MODULUS: Unsigned is the prime modulus that defines the field.

   *  ENCODED_SIZE: Unsigned is the number of bytes used to encode a
      field element as a byte string.

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   A concrete Field also implements the following class methods:

   *  Field.zeros(length: Unsigned) -> output: Vec[Field] returns a
      vector of zeros.  The length of output MUST be length.

   *  Field.rand_vec(length: Unsigned) -> output: Vec[Field] returns a
      vector of random field elements.  The length of output MUST be
      length.

   A field element is an instance of a concrete Field.  The concrete
   class defines the usual arithmetic operations on field elements.  In
   addition, it defines the following instance method for converting a
   field element to an unsigned integer:

   *  elem.as_unsigned() -> Unsigned returns the integer representation
      of field element elem.

   Likewise, each concrete Field implements a constructor for converting
   an unsigned integer into a field element:

   *  Field(integer: Unsigned) returns integer represented as a field
      element.  The value of integer MUST be less than Field.MODULUS.

   Finally, each concrete Field has two derived class methods, one for
   encoding a vector of field elements as a byte string and another for
   decoding a vector of field elements.

   def encode_vec(Field, data: Vec[Field]) -> Bytes:
       encoded = Bytes()
       for x in data:
           encoded += I2OSP(x.as_unsigned(), Field.ENCODED_SIZE)
       return encoded

   def decode_vec(Field, encoded: Bytes) -> Vec[Field]:
       L = Field.ENCODED_SIZE
       if len(encoded) % L != 0:
           raise ERR_DECODE

       vec = []
       for i in range(0, len(encoded), L):
           encoded_x = encoded[i:i+L]
           x = OS2IP(encoded_x)
           if x >= Field.MODULUS:
               raise ERR_DECODE # Integer is larger than modulus
           vec.append(Field(x))
       return vec

             Figure 8: Derived class methods for finite fields.

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6.1.1.  Auxiliary Functions

   The following auxiliary functions on vectors of field elements are
   used in the remainder of this document.  Note that an exception is
   raised by each function if the operands are not the same length.

   # Compute the inner product of the operands.
   def inner_product(left: Vec[Field], right: Vec[Field]) -> Field:
       return sum(map(lambda x: x[0] * x[1], zip(left, right)))

   # Subtract the right operand from the left and return the result.
   def vec_sub(left: Vec[Field], right: Vec[Field]):
       return list(map(lambda x: x[0] - x[1], zip(left, right)))

   # Add the right operand to the left and return the result.
   def vec_add(left: Vec[Field], right: Vec[Field]):
       return list(map(lambda x: x[0] + x[1], zip(left, right)))

               Figure 9: Common functions for finite fields.

6.1.2.  FFT-Friendly Fields

   Some VDAFs require fields that are suitable for efficient computation
   of the discrete Fourier transform, as this allows for fast polynomial
   interpolation.  (One example is Prio3 (Section 7) when instantiated
   with the generic FLP of Section 7.3.3.)  Specifically, a field is
   said to be "FFT-friendly" if, in addition to satisfying the interface
   described in Section 6.1, it implements the following method:

   *  Field.gen() -> Field returns the generator of a large subgroup of
      the multiplicative group.  To be FFT-friendly, the order of this
      subgroup NUST be a power of 2.  In addition, the size of the
      subgroup dictates how large interpolated polynomials can be.  It
      is RECOMMENDED that a generator is chosen with order at least
      2^20.

   FFT-friendly fields also define the following parameter:

   *  GEN_ORDER: Unsigned is the order of a multiplicative subgroup
      generated by Field.gen().

6.1.3.  Parameters

   The tables below define finite fields used in the remainder of this
   document.

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                 +==============+=======================+
                 | Parameter    | Value                 |
                 +==============+=======================+
                 | MODULUS      | 2^32 * 4294967295 + 1 |
                 +--------------+-----------------------+
                 | ENCODED_SIZE | 8                     |
                 +--------------+-----------------------+
                 | Generator    | 7^4294967295          |
                 +--------------+-----------------------+
                 | GEN_ORDER    | 2^32                  |
                 +--------------+-----------------------+

                 Table 3: Field64, an FFT-friendly field.

             +==============+================================+
             | Parameter    | Value                          |
             +==============+================================+
             | MODULUS      | 2^66 * 4611686018427387897 + 1 |
             +--------------+--------------------------------+
             | ENCODED_SIZE | 16                             |
             +--------------+--------------------------------+
             | Generator    | 7^4611686018427387897          |
             +--------------+--------------------------------+
             | GEN_ORDER    | 2^66                           |
             +--------------+--------------------------------+

                 Table 4: Field128, an FFT-friendly field.

                       +==============+============+
                       | Parameter    | Value      |
                       +==============+============+
                       | MODULUS      | 2^255 - 19 |
                       +--------------+------------+
                       | ENCODED_SIZE | 32         |
                       +--------------+------------+

                             Table 5: Field255.

      OPEN ISSUE We currently use big-endian for encoding field
      elements.  However, for implementations of GF(2^255-19), little
      endian is more common.  See issue#90.

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6.2.  Pseudorandom Generators

   A pseudorandom generator (PRG) is used to expand a short,
   (pseudo)random seed into a long string of pseudorandom bits.  A PRG
   suitable for this document implements the interface specified in this
   section.  Concrete constructions are described in the subsections
   that follow.

   PRGs are defined by a class Prg with the following associated
   parameter:

   *  SEED_SIZE: Unsigned is the size (in bytes) of a seed.

   A concrete Prg implements the following class method:

   *  Prg(seed: Bytes, info: Bytes) constructs an instance of Prg from
      the given seed and info string.  The seed MUST be of length
      SEED_SIZE and MUST be generated securely (i.e., it is either the
      output of gen_rand or a previous invocation of the PRG).  The info
      string is used for domain separation.

   *  prg.next(length: Unsigned) returns the next length bytes of output
      of PRG.  If the seed was securely generated, the output can be
      treated as pseudorandom.

   Each Prg has two derived class methods.  The first is used to derive
   a fresh seed from an existing one.  The second is used to compute a
   sequence of pseudorandom field elements.  For each method, the seed
   MUST be of length SEED_SIZE and MUST be generated securely (i.e., it
   is either the output of gen_rand or a previous invocation of the
   PRG).

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   # Derive a new seed.
   def derive_seed(Prg, seed: Bytes, info: Bytes) -> bytes:
       prg = Prg(seed, info)
       return prg.next(Prg.SEED_SIZE)

   # Output the next `length` pseudorandom elements of `Field`.
   def next_vec(self, Field, length: Unsigned):
       m = next_power_of_2(Field.MODULUS) - 1
       vec = []
       while len(vec) < length:
           x = OS2IP(self.next(Field.ENCODED_SIZE))
           x &= m
           if x < Field.MODULUS:
               vec.append(Field(x))
       return vec

   # Expand the input `seed` into vector of `length` field elements.
   def expand_into_vec(Prg,
                       Field,
                       seed: Bytes,
                       info: Bytes,
                       length: Unsigned):
       prg = Prg(seed, info)
       return prg.next_vec(Field, length)

                 Figure 10: Derived class methods for PRGs.

6.2.1.  PrgAes128

      OPEN ISSUE Phillipp points out that a fixed-key mode of AES may be
      more performant (https://eprint.iacr.org/2019/074.pdf).  See
      issue#32.

      TODO(issue #106) Decide if it's safe to model this construction as
      a random oracle.  PrgAes128.derive_seed() is used for the Fiat-
      Shamir heuristic in Prio3 (Section 7).  A fixed-key is used for
      this step (the all-zero string).  A reasonable starting point
      would be to model AES as an ideal cipher.

   Our first construction, PrgAes128, converts a blockcipher, namely
   AES-128, into a PRG.  Seed expansion involves two steps.  In the
   first step, CMAC [RFC4493] is applied to the seed and info string to
   get a fresh key.  In the second step, the fresh key is used in CTR-
   mode to produce a key stream for generating the output.  A fixed
   initialization vector (IV) is used.

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class PrgAes128:

    SEED_SIZE: Unsigned = 16

    def __init__(self, seed, info):
        self.length_consumed = 0

        # Use CMAC as a pseudorandom function to derive a key.
        self.key = AES128-CMAC(seed, info)

    def next(self, length):
        self.length_consumed += length

        # CTR-mode encryption of the all-zero string of the desired
        # length and using a fixed, all-zero IV.
        stream = AES128-CTR(key, zeros(16), zeros(self.length_consumed))
        return stream[-length:]

               Figure 11: Definition of PRG PrgAes128.

7.  Prio3

      NOTE This construction has not undergone significant security
      analysis.

   This section describes Prio3, a VDAF for Prio [CGB17].  Prio is
   suitable for a wide variety of aggregation functions, including (but
   not limited to) sum, mean, standard deviation, estimation of
   quantiles (e.g., median), and linear regression.  In fact, the scheme
   described in this section is compatible with any aggregation function
   that has the following structure:

   *  Each measurement is encoded as a vector over some finite field.

   *  Input validity is determined by an arithmetic circuit evaluated
      over the encoded input.  (An "arithmetic circuit" is a function
      comprised of arithmetic operations in the field.)  The circuit's
      output is a single field element: if zero, then the input is said
      to be "valid"; otherwise, if the output is non-zero, then the
      input is said to be "invalid".

   *  The aggregate result is obtained by summing up the encoded input
      vectors and computing some function of the sum.

   At a high level, Prio3 distributes this computation as follows.  Each
   Client first shards its measurement by first encoding it, then
   splitting the vector into secret shares and sending a share to each
   Aggregator.  Next, in the preparation phase, the Aggregators carry

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   out a multi-party computation to determine if their shares correspond
   to a valid input (as determined by the arithmetic circuit).  This
   computation involves a "proof" of validity generated by the Client.
   Next, each Aggregator sums up its input shares locally.  Finally, the
   Collector sums up the aggregate shares and computes the aggregate
   result.

   This VDAF does not have an aggregation parameter.  Instead, the
   output share is derived from the input share by applying a fixed map.
   See Section 8 for an example of a VDAF that makes meaningful use of
   the aggregation parameter.

   As the name implies, Prio3 is a descendant of the original Prio
   construction.  A second iteration was deployed in the [ENPA] system,
   and like the VDAF described here, the ENPA system was built from
   techniques introduced in [BBCGGI19] that significantly improve
   communication cost.  That system was specialized for a particular
   aggregation function; the goal of Prio3 is to provide the same level
   of generality as the original construction.

   The core component of Prio3 is a "Fully Linear Proof (FLP)" system.
   Introduced by [BBCGGI19], the FLP encapsulates the functionality
   required for encoding and validating inputs.  Prio3 can be thought of
   as a transformation of a particular class of FLPs into a VDAF.

   The remainder of this section is structured as follows.  The syntax
   for FLPs is described in Section 7.1.  The generic transformation of
   an FLP into Prio3 is specified in Section 7.2.  Next, a concrete FLP
   suitable for any validity circuit is specified in Section 7.3.
   Finally, instantiations of Prio3 for various types of measurements
   are specified in Section 7.4.  Test vectors can be found in
   Appendix "Test Vectors".

7.1.  Fully Linear Proof (FLP) Systems

   Conceptually, an FLP is a two-party protocol executed by a prover and
   a verifier.  In actual use, however, the prover's computation is
   carried out by the Client, and the verifier's computation is
   distributed among the Aggregators.  The Client generates a "proof" of
   its input's validity and distributes shares of the proof to the
   Aggregators.  Each Aggregator then performs some a computation on its
   input share and proof share locally and sends the result to the other
   Aggregators.  Combining the exchanged messages allows each Aggregator
   to decide if it holds a share of a valid input.  (See Section 7.2 for
   details.)

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   As usual, we will describe the interface implemented by a concrete
   FLP in terms of an abstract base class Flp that specifies the set of
   methods and parameters a concrete FLP must provide.

   The parameters provided by a concrete FLP are listed in Table 6.

       +================+==========================================+
       | Parameter      | Description                              |
       +================+==========================================+
       | PROVE_RAND_LEN | Length of the prover randomness, the     |
       |                | number of random field elements consumed |
       |                | by the prover when generating a proof    |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | QUERY_RAND_LEN | Length of the query randomness, the      |
       |                | number of random field elements consumed |
       |                | by the verifier                          |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | JOINT_RAND_LEN | Length of the joint randomness, the      |
       |                | number of random field elements consumed |
       |                | by both the prover and verifier          |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | INPUT_LEN      | Length of the encoded measurement        |
       |                | (Section 7.1.1)                          |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | OUTPUT_LEN     | Length of the aggregatable output        |
       |                | (Section 7.1.1)                          |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | PROOF_LEN      | Length of the proof                      |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | VERIFIER_LEN   | Length of the verifier message generated |
       |                | by querying the input and proof          |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | Measurement    | Type of the measurement                  |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | AggResult      | Type of the aggregate result             |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+
       | Field          | As defined in (Section 6.1)              |
       +----------------+------------------------------------------+

          Table 6: Constants and types defined by a concrete FLP.

   An FLP specifies the following algorithms for generating and
   verifying proofs of validity (encoding is described below in
   Section 7.1.1):

   *  Flp.prove(input: Vec[Field], prove_rand: Vec[Field], joint_rand:
      Vec[Field]) -> Vec[Field] is the deterministic proof-generation
      algorithm run by the prover.  Its inputs are the encoded input,

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      the "prover randomness" prove_rand, and the "joint randomness"
      joint_rand.  The prover randomness is used only by the prover, but
      the joint randomness is shared by both the prover and verifier.

   *  Flp.query(input: Vec[Field], proof: Vec[Field], query_rand:
      Vec[Field], joint_rand: Vec[Field], num_shares: Unsigned) ->
      Vec[Field] is the query-generation algorithm run by the verifier.
      This is used to "query" the input and proof.  The result of the
      query (i.e., the output of this function) is called the "verifier
      message".  In addition to the input and proof, this algorithm
      takes as input the query randomness query_rand and the joint
      randomness joint_rand.  The former is used only by the verifier.
      num_shares specifies how many input and proof shares were
      generated.

   *  Flp.decide(verifier: Vec[Field]) -> Bool is the deterministic
      decision algorithm run by the verifier.  It takes as input the
      verifier message and outputs a boolean indicating if the input
      from which it was generated is valid.

   Our application requires that the FLP is "fully linear" in the sense
   defined in [BBCGGI19].  As a practical matter, what this property
   implies is that, when run on a share of the input and proof, the
   query-generation algorithm outputs a share of the verifier message.
   Furthermore, the "strong zero-knowledge" property of the FLP system
   ensures that the verifier message reveals nothing about the input's
   validity.  Therefore, to decide if an input is valid, the Aggregators
   will run the query-generation algorithm locally, exchange verifier
   shares, combine them to recover the verifier message, and run the
   decision algorithm.

   The query-generation algorithm includes a parameter num_shares that
   specifies the number of shares of the input and proof that were
   generated.  If these data are not secret shared, then num_shares ==
   1.  This parameter is useful for certain FLP constructions.  For
   example, the FLP in Section 7.3 is defined in terms of an arithmetic
   circuit; when the circuit contains constants, it is sometimes
   necessary to normalize those constants to ensure that the circuit's
   output, when run on a valid input, is the same regardless of the
   number of shares.

   An FLP is executed by the prover and verifier as follows:

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def run_flp(Flp, inp: Vec[Flp.Field], num_shares: Unsigned):
    joint_rand = Flp.Field.rand_vec(Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN)
    prove_rand = Flp.Field.rand_vec(Flp.PROVE_RAND_LEN)
    query_rand = Flp.Field.rand_vec(Flp.QUERY_RAND_LEN)

    # Prover generates the proof.
    proof = Flp.prove(inp, prove_rand, joint_rand)

    # Verifier queries the input and proof.
    verifier = Flp.query(inp, proof, query_rand, joint_rand, num_shares)

    # Verifier decides if the input is valid.
    return Flp.decide(verifier)

                   Figure 12: Execution of an FLP.

   The proof system is constructed so that, if input is a valid input,
   then run_flp(Flp, input, 1) always returns True.  On the other hand,
   if input is invalid, then as long as joint_rand and query_rand are
   generated uniform randomly, the output is False with overwhelming
   probability.

   We remark that [BBCGGI19] defines a much larger class of fully linear
   proof systems than we consider here.  In particular, what is called
   an "FLP" here is called a 1.5-round, public-coin, interactive oracle
   proof system in their paper.

7.1.1.  Encoding the Input

   The type of measurement being aggregated is defined by the FLP.
   Hence, the FLP also specifies a method of encoding raw measurements
   as a vector of field elements:

   *  Flp.encode(measurement: Measurement) -> Vec[Field] encodes a raw
      measurement as a vector of field elements.  The return value MUST
      be of length INPUT_LEN.

   For some FLPs, the encoded input also includes redundant field
   elements that are useful for checking the proof, but which are not
   needed after the proof has been checked.  An example is the "integer
   sum" data type from [CGB17] in which an integer in range [0, 2^k) is
   encoded as a vector of k field elements (this type is also defined in
   Section 7.4.2).  After consuming this vector, all that is needed is
   the integer it represents.  Thus the FLP defines an algorithm for
   truncating the input to the length of the aggregated output:

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   *  Flp.truncate(input: Vec[Field]) -> Vec[Field] maps an encoded
      input to an aggregatable output.  The length of the input MUST be
      INPUT_LEN and the length of the output MUST be OUTPUT_LEN.

   Once the aggregate shares have been computed and combined together,
   their sum can be converted into the aggregate result.  This could be
   a projection from the FLP's field to the integers, or it could
   include additional post-processing.

   *  Flp.decode(output: Vec[Field], num_measurements: Unsigned) ->
      AggResult maps a sum of aggregate shares to an aggregate result.
      The length of the input MUST be OUTPUT_LEN. num_measurements is
      the number of measurements that contributed to the aggregated
      output.

   We remark that, taken together, these three functionalities
   correspond roughly to the notion of "Affine-aggregatable encodings
   (AFEs)" from [CGB17].

7.2.  Construction

   This section specifies Prio3, an implementation of the Vdaf interface
   (Section 5).  It has two generic parameters: an Flp (Section 7.1) and
   a Prg (Section 6.2).  The associated constants and types required by
   the Vdaf interface are defined in Table 7.  The methods required for
   sharding, preparation, aggregation, and unsharding are described in
   the remaining subsections.

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    +=================+===============================================+
    | Parameter       | Value                                         |
    +=================+===============================================+
    | VERIFY_KEY_SIZE | Prg.SEED_SIZE                                 |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | ROUNDS          | 1                                             |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | SHARES          | in [2, 255)                                   |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | Measurement     | Flp.Measurement                               |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | AggParam        | None                                          |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | Prep            | Tuple[Vec[Flp.Field], Optional[Bytes], Bytes] |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | OutShare        | Vec[Flp.Field]                                |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+
    | AggResult       | Flp.AggResult                                 |
    +-----------------+-----------------------------------------------+

             Table 7: Associated parameters for the Prio3 VDAF.

7.2.1.  Sharding

   Recall from Section 7.1 that the FLP syntax calls for "joint
   randomness" shared by the prover (i.e., the Client) and the verifier
   (i.e., the Aggregators).  VDAFs have no such notion.  Instead, the
   Client derives the joint randomness from its input in a way that
   allows the Aggregators to reconstruct it from their input shares.
   (This idea is based on the Fiat-Shamir heuristic and is described in
   Section 6.2.3 of [BBCGGI19].)

   The input-distribution algorithm involves the following steps:

   1.  Encode the Client's raw measurement as an input for the FLP

   2.  Shard the input into a sequence of input shares

   3.  Derive the joint randomness from the input shares

   4.  Run the FLP proof-generation algorithm using the derived joint
       randomness

   5.  Shard the proof into a sequence of proof shares

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   The algorithm is specified below.  Notice that only one set of input
   and proof shares (called the "leader" shares below) are vectors of
   field elements.  The other shares (called the "helper" shares) are
   represented instead by PRG seeds, which are expanded into vectors of
   field elements.

   The code refers to auxiliary functions for encoding the shares and
   deriving the joint randomness.  In particular, encode_leader_share
   and encode_helper_share are used for encoding and joint_rand is used
   for joint randomness.  These are defined in Section 7.2.5.

def measurement_to_input_shares(Prio3, measurement):
    # Domain separation tag for PRG info string
    dst = VERSION + I2OSP(Prio3.ID, 4)
    inp = Prio3.Flp.encode(measurement)

    # Generate input shares.
    leader_input_share = inp
    k_helper_input_shares = []
    k_helper_blinds = []
    k_joint_rand_parts = []
    for j in range(Prio3.SHARES-1):
        k_blind = gen_rand(Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE)
        k_share = gen_rand(Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE)
        helper_input_share = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(
            Prio3.Flp.Field,
            k_share,
            dst + byte(j+1),
            Prio3.Flp.INPUT_LEN
        )
        leader_input_share = vec_sub(leader_input_share,
                                     helper_input_share)
        encoded = Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(helper_input_share)
        k_joint_rand_part = Prio3.Prg.derive_seed(
            k_blind, dst + byte(j+1) + encoded)
        k_helper_input_shares.append(k_share)
        k_helper_blinds.append(k_blind)
        k_joint_rand_parts.append(k_joint_rand_part)
    k_leader_blind = gen_rand(Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE)
    encoded = Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(leader_input_share)
    k_leader_joint_rand_part = Prio3.Prg.derive_seed(
        k_leader_blind, dst + byte(0) + encoded)
    k_joint_rand_parts.insert(0, k_leader_joint_rand_part)

    # Compute joint randomness seed.
    k_joint_rand = Prio3.joint_rand(k_joint_rand_parts)

    # Generate the proof shares.

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    prove_rand = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(
        Prio3.Flp.Field,
        gen_rand(Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
        dst,
        Prio3.Flp.PROVE_RAND_LEN
    )
    joint_rand = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(
        Prio3.Flp.Field,
        k_joint_rand,
        dst,
        Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN
    )
    proof = Prio3.Flp.prove(inp, prove_rand, joint_rand)
    leader_proof_share = proof
    k_helper_proof_shares = []
    for j in range(Prio3.SHARES-1):
        k_share = gen_rand(Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE)
        k_helper_proof_shares.append(k_share)
        helper_proof_share = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(
            Prio3.Flp.Field,
            k_share,
            dst + byte(j+1),
            Prio3.Flp.PROOF_LEN
        )
        leader_proof_share = vec_sub(leader_proof_share,
                                     helper_proof_share)

    # The Leader's "hint" consists of the joint randomness parts of the
    # other Aggregators.
    k_leader_hint = k_joint_rand_parts[1:]
    input_shares = []
    input_shares.append(Prio3.encode_leader_share(
        leader_input_share,
        leader_proof_share,
        k_leader_blind,
        k_leader_hint,
    ))
    for j in range(Prio3.SHARES-1):
        # Each Helper's hint consists of the joint randomness part of the
        # other Aggregators.
        k_helper_hint = k_joint_rand_parts[:j+1] + \
                        k_joint_rand_parts[j+2:]
        input_shares.append(Prio3.encode_helper_share(
            k_helper_input_shares[j],
            k_helper_proof_shares[j],
            k_helper_blinds[j],
            k_helper_hint,
        ))

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    return (b'', input_shares)

          Figure 13: Input-distribution algorithm for Prio3.

7.2.2.  Preparation

   This section describes the process of recovering output shares from
   the input shares.  The high-level idea is that each Aggregator first
   queries its input and proof share locally, then exchanges its
   verifier share with the other Aggregators.  The verifier shares are
   then combined into the verifier message, which is used to decide
   whether to accept.

   In addition, the Aggregators must ensure that they have all used the
   same joint randomness for the query-generation algorithm.  The joint
   randomness is generated by a PRG seed.  Each Aggregator derives a
   "part" of this seed from its input share and the "blind" generated by
   the client.  The seed is derived by hashing together the parts, so
   before running the query-generation algorithm, it must first gather
   the parts derived by the other Aggregators.

   In order to avoid extra round of communication, the Client sends each
   Aggregator a "hint" consisting of the other Aggregators' parts of the
   joint randomness seed.  This leaves open the possibility that the
   Client cheated by, say, forcing the Aggregators to use joint
   randomness that biases the proof check procedure some way in its
   favor.  To mitigate this, the Aggregators also check that they have
   all computed the same joint randomness seed before accepting their
   output shares.  To do so, they exchange their parts of the joint
   randomness along with their verifier shares.

   The algorithms required for preparation are defined as follows.
   These algorithms make use of methods defined in Section 7.2.5.

   def prep_init(Prio3, verify_key, agg_id, _agg_param,
                 nonce, _public_share, input_share):
       # Domain separation tag for PRG info string
       dst = VERSION + I2OSP(Prio3.ID, 4)

       (input_share, proof_share, k_blind, k_hint) = \
           Prio3.decode_leader_share(input_share) if agg_id == 0 else \
           Prio3.decode_helper_share(dst, agg_id, input_share)
       out_share = Prio3.Flp.truncate(input_share)

       # Compute joint randomness.
       joint_rand, k_joint_rand, k_joint_rand_part = [], None, None
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           encoded = Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(input_share)

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           k_joint_rand_part = Prio3.Prg.derive_seed(
               k_blind, dst + byte(agg_id) + encoded)
           k_joint_rand_parts = k_hint[:agg_id] + \
                                [k_joint_rand_part] + \
                                k_hint[agg_id:]
           k_joint_rand = Prio3.joint_rand(k_joint_rand_parts)
           joint_rand = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(
               Prio3.Flp.Field,
               k_joint_rand,
               dst,
               Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN
           )

       # Query the input and proof share.
       query_rand = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(
           Prio3.Flp.Field,
           verify_key,
           dst + byte(255) + nonce,
           Prio3.Flp.QUERY_RAND_LEN
       )
       verifier_share = Prio3.Flp.query(input_share,
                                        proof_share,
                                        query_rand,
                                        joint_rand,
                                        Prio3.SHARES)

       prep_msg = Prio3.encode_prep_share(verifier_share,
                                          k_joint_rand_part)
       return (out_share, k_joint_rand, prep_msg)

   def prep_next(Prio3, prep, inbound):
       (out_share, k_joint_rand, prep_msg) = prep

       if inbound is None:
           return (prep, prep_msg)

       k_joint_rand_check = Prio3.decode_prep_msg(inbound)
       if k_joint_rand_check != k_joint_rand:
           raise ERR_VERIFY # joint randomness check failed

       return out_share

   def prep_shares_to_prep(Prio3, _agg_param, prep_shares):
       dst = VERSION + I2OSP(Prio3.ID, 4)
       verifier = Prio3.Flp.Field.zeros(Prio3.Flp.VERIFIER_LEN)
       k_joint_rand_parts = []
       for encoded in prep_shares:
           (verifier_share, k_joint_rand_part) = \

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               Prio3.decode_prep_share(encoded)

           verifier = vec_add(verifier, verifier_share)

           if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
               k_joint_rand_parts.append(k_joint_rand_part)

       if not Prio3.Flp.decide(verifier):
           raise ERR_VERIFY # proof verifier check failed

       k_joint_rand_check = None
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           k_joint_rand_check = Prio3.joint_rand(k_joint_rand_parts)
       return Prio3.encode_prep_msg(k_joint_rand_check)

                  Figure 14: Preparation state for Prio3.

7.2.3.  Aggregation

   Aggregating a set of output shares is simply a matter of adding up
   the vectors element-wise.

   def out_shares_to_agg_share(Prio3, _agg_param, out_shares):
       agg_share = Prio3.Flp.Field.zeros(Prio3.Flp.OUTPUT_LEN)
       for out_share in out_shares:
           agg_share = vec_add(agg_share, out_share)
       return Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(agg_share)

                Figure 15: Aggregation algorithm for Prio3.

7.2.4.  Unsharding

   To unshard a set of aggregate shares, the Collector first adds up the
   vectors element-wise.  It then converts each element of the vector
   into an integer.

   def agg_shares_to_result(Prio3, _agg_param, agg_shares,
                            num_measurements):
       agg = Prio3.Flp.Field.zeros(Prio3.Flp.OUTPUT_LEN)
       for agg_share in agg_shares:
           agg = vec_add(agg, Prio3.Flp.Field.decode_vec(agg_share))
       return Prio3.Flp.decode(agg, num_measurements)

         Figure 16: Computation of the aggregate result for Prio3.

7.2.5.  Auxiliary Functions

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   def joint_rand(Prio3, k_joint_rand_parts):
       dst = VERSION + I2OSP(Prio3.ID, 4)
       return Prio3.Prg.derive_seed(
           zeros(Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
           dst + byte(255) + concat(k_joint_rand_parts))

   def encode_leader_share(Prio3,
                           input_share,
                           proof_share,
                           k_blind,
                           k_hint):
       encoded = Bytes()
       encoded += Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(input_share)
       encoded += Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(proof_share)
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           encoded += k_blind
           encoded += concat(k_hint)
       return encoded

   def decode_leader_share(Prio3, encoded):
       l = Prio3.Flp.Field.ENCODED_SIZE * Prio3.Flp.INPUT_LEN
       encoded_input_share, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       input_share = Prio3.Flp.Field.decode_vec(encoded_input_share)
       l = Prio3.Flp.Field.ENCODED_SIZE * Prio3.Flp.PROOF_LEN
       encoded_proof_share, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       proof_share = Prio3.Flp.Field.decode_vec(encoded_proof_share)
       l = Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE
       k_blind, k_hint = None, None
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           k_blind, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
           k_hint = []
           for _ in range(Prio3.SHARES-1):
               k_joint_rand_part, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
               k_hint.append(k_joint_rand_part)
       if len(encoded) != 0:
           raise ERR_DECODE
       return (input_share, proof_share, k_blind, k_hint)

   def encode_helper_share(Prio3,
                           k_input_share,
                           k_proof_share,
                           k_blind,
                           k_hint):
       encoded = Bytes()
       encoded += k_input_share
       encoded += k_proof_share
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           encoded += k_blind

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           encoded += concat(k_hint)
       return encoded

   def decode_helper_share(Prio3, dst, agg_id, encoded):
       l = Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE
       k_input_share, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       input_share = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(Prio3.Flp.Field,
                                               k_input_share,
                                               dst + byte(agg_id),
                                               Prio3.Flp.INPUT_LEN)
       k_proof_share, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       proof_share = Prio3.Prg.expand_into_vec(Prio3.Flp.Field,
                                               k_proof_share,
                                               dst + byte(agg_id),
                                               Prio3.Flp.PROOF_LEN)
       k_blind, k_hint = None, None
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           k_blind, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
           k_hint = []
           for _ in range(Prio3.SHARES-1):
               k_joint_rand_part, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
               k_hint.append(k_joint_rand_part)
       if len(encoded) != 0:
           raise ERR_DECODE
       return (input_share, proof_share, k_blind, k_hint)

   def encode_prep_share(Prio3, verifier, k_joint_rand):
       encoded = Bytes()
       encoded += Prio3.Flp.Field.encode_vec(verifier)
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           encoded += k_joint_rand
       return encoded

   def decode_prep_share(Prio3, encoded):
       l = Prio3.Flp.Field.ENCODED_SIZE * Prio3.Flp.VERIFIER_LEN
       encoded_verifier, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       verifier = Prio3.Flp.Field.decode_vec(encoded_verifier)
       k_joint_rand = None
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           l = Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE
           k_joint_rand, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       if len(encoded) != 0:
           raise ERR_DECODE
       return (verifier, k_joint_rand)

   def encode_prep_msg(Prio3, k_joint_rand_check):
       encoded = Bytes()
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:

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           encoded += k_joint_rand_check
       return encoded

   def decode_prep_msg(Prio3, encoded):
       k_joint_rand_check = None
       if Prio3.Flp.JOINT_RAND_LEN > 0:
           l = Prio3.Prg.SEED_SIZE
           k_joint_rand_check, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       if len(encoded) != 0:
           raise ERR_DECODE
       return k_joint_rand_check

              Figure 17: Helper functions required for Prio3.

7.3.  A General-Purpose FLP

   This section describes an FLP based on the construction from in
   [BBCGGI19], Section 4.2.  We begin in Section 7.3.1 with an overview
   of their proof system and the extensions to their proof system made
   here.  The construction is specified in Section 7.3.3.

      OPEN ISSUE We're not yet sure if specifying this general-purpose
      FLP is desirable.  It might be preferable to specify specialized
      FLPs for each data type that we want to standardize, for two
      reasons.  First, clear and concise specifications are likely
      easier to write for specialized FLPs rather than the general one.
      Second, we may end up tailoring each FLP to the measurement type
      in a way that improves performance, but breaks compatibility with
      the general-purpose FLP.

      In any case, we can't make this decision until we know which data
      types to standardize, so for now, we'll stick with the general-
      purpose construction.  The reference implementation can be found
      at https://github.com/cfrg/draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf/tree/main/poc.

      OPEN ISSUE Chris Wood points out that the this section reads more
      like a paper than a standard.  Eventually we'll want to work this
      into something that is readily consumable by the CFRG.

7.3.1.  Overview

   In the proof system of [BBCGGI19], validity is defined via an
   arithmetic circuit evaluated over the input: If the circuit output is
   zero, then the input is deemed valid; otherwise, if the circuit
   output is non-zero, then the input is deemed invalid.  Thus the goal
   of the proof system is merely to allow the verifier to evaluate the
   validity circuit over the input.  For our application (Section 7),
   this computation is distributed among multiple Aggregators, each of

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   which has only a share of the input.

   Suppose for a moment that the validity circuit C is affine, meaning
   its only operations are addition and multiplication-by-constant.  In
   particular, suppose the circuit does not contain a multiplication
   gate whose operands are both non-constant.  Then to decide if an
   input x is valid, each Aggregator could evaluate C on its share of x
   locally, broadcast the output share to its peers, then combine the
   output shares locally to recover C(x).  This is true because for any
   SHARES-way secret sharing of x it holds that

   C(x_shares[0] + ... + x_shares[SHARES-1]) =
       C(x_shares[0]) + ... + C(x_shares[SHARES-1])

   (Note that, for this equality to hold, it may be necessary to scale
   any constants in the circuit by SHARES.)  However this is not the
   case if C is not-affine (i.e., it contains at least one
   multiplication gate whose operands are non-constant).  In the proof
   system of [BBCGGI19], the proof is designed to allow the
   (distributed) verifier to compute the non-affine operations using
   only linear operations on (its share of) the input and proof.

   To make this work, the proof system is restricted to validity
   circuits that exhibit a special structure.  Specifically, an
   arithmetic circuit with "G-gates" (see [BBCGGI19], Definition 5.2) is
   composed of affine gates and any number of instances of a
   distinguished gate G, which may be non-affine.  We will refer to this
   class of circuits as 'gadget circuits' and to G as the "gadget".

   As an illustrative example, consider a validity circuit C that
   recognizes the set L = set([0], [1]).  That is, C takes as input a
   length-1 vector x and returns 0 if x[0] is in [0,2) and outputs
   something else otherwise.  This circuit can be expressed as the
   following degree-2 polynomial:

   C(x) = (x[0] - 1) * x[0] = x[0]^2 - x[0]

   This polynomial recognizes L because x[0]^2 = x[0] is only true if
   x[0] == 0 or x[0] == 1.  Notice that the polynomial involves a non-
   affine operation, x[0]^2.  In order to apply [BBCGGI19], Theorem 4.3,
   the circuit needs to be rewritten in terms of a gadget that subsumes
   this non-affine operation.  For example, the gadget might be
   multiplication:

   Mul(left, right) = left * right

   The validity circuit can then be rewritten in terms of Mul like so:

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   C(x[0]) = Mul(x[0], x[0]) - x[0]

   The proof system of [BBCGGI19] allows the verifier to evaluate each
   instance of the gadget (i.e., Mul(x[0], x[0]) in our example) using a
   linear function of the input and proof.  The proof is constructed
   roughly as follows.  Let C be the validity circuit and suppose the
   gadget is arity-L (i.e., it has L input wires.).  Let wire[j-1,k-1]
   denote the value of the jth wire of the kth call to the gadget during
   the evaluation of C(x).  Suppose there are M such calls and fix
   distinct field elements alpha[0], ..., alpha[M-1].  (We will require
   these points to have a special property, as we'll discuss in
   Section 7.3.1.1; but for the moment it is only important that they
   are distinct.)

   The prover constructs from wire and alpha a polynomial that, when
   evaluated at alpha[k-1], produces the output of the kth call to the
   gadget.  Let us call this the "gadget polynomial".  Polynomial
   evaluation is linear, which means that, in the distributed setting,
   the Client can disseminate additive shares of the gadget polynomial
   that the Aggregators then use to compute additive shares of each
   gadget output, allowing each Aggregator to compute its share of C(x)
   locally.

   There is one more wrinkle, however: It is still possible for a
   malicious prover to produce a gadget polynomial that would result in
   C(x) being computed incorrectly, potentially resulting in an invalid
   input being accepted.  To prevent this, the verifier performs a
   probabilistic test to check that the gadget polynomial is well-
   formed.  This test, and the procedure for constructing the gadget
   polynomial, are described in detail in Section 7.3.3.

7.3.1.1.  Extensions

   The FLP described in the next section extends the proof system
   [BBCGGI19], Section 4.2 in three ways.

   First, the validity circuit in our construction includes an
   additional, random input (this is the "joint randomness" derived from
   the input shares in Prio3; see Section 7.2).  This allows for circuit
   optimizations that trade a small soundness error for a shorter proof.
   For example, consider a circuit that recognizes the set of length-N
   vectors for which each element is either one or zero.  A
   deterministic circuit could be constructed for this language, but it
   would involve a large number of multiplications that would result in
   a large proof.  (See the discussion in [BBCGGI19], Section 5.2 for
   details).  A much shorter proof can be constructed for the following
   randomized circuit:

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   C(inp, r) = r * Range2(inp[0]) + ... + r^N * Range2(inp[N-1])

   (Note that this is a special case of [BBCGGI19], Theorem 5.2.)  Here
   inp is the length-N input and r is a random field element.  The
   gadget circuit Range2 is the "range-check" polynomial described
   above, i.e., Range2(x) = x^2 - x.  The idea is that, if inp is valid
   (i.e., each inp[j] is in [0,2)), then the circuit will evaluate to 0
   regardless of the value of r; but if inp[j] is not in [0,2) for some
   j, the output will be non-zero with high probability.

   The second extension implemented by our FLP allows the validity
   circuit to contain multiple gadget types.  (This generalization was
   suggested in [BBCGGI19], Remark 4.5.)  For example, the following
   circuit is allowed, where Mul and Range2 are the gadgets defined
   above (the input has length N+1):

   C(inp, r) = r * Range2(inp[0]) + ... + r^N * Range2(inp[N-1]) + \
               2^0 * inp[0]       + ... + 2^(N-1) * inp[N-1]     - \
               Mul(inp[N], inp[N])

   Finally, [BBCGGI19], Theorem 4.3 makes no restrictions on the choice
   of the fixed points alpha[0], ..., alpha[M-1], other than to require
   that the points are distinct.  In this document, the fixed points are
   chosen so that the gadget polynomial can be constructed efficiently
   using the Cooley-Tukey FFT ("Fast Fourier Transform") algorithm.
   Note that this requires the field to be "FFT-friendly" as defined in
   Section 6.1.2.

7.3.2.  Validity Circuits

   The FLP described in Section 7.3.3 is defined in terms of a validity
   circuit Valid that implements the interface described here.

   A concrete Valid defines the following parameters:

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        +================+=======================================+
        | Parameter      | Description                           |
        +================+=======================================+
        | GADGETS        | A list of gadgets                     |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | GADGET_CALLS   | Number of times each gadget is called |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | INPUT_LEN      | Length of the input                   |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | OUTPUT_LEN     | Length of the aggregatable output     |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | JOINT_RAND_LEN | Length of the random input            |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | Measurement    | The type of measurement               |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | AggResult      | Type of the aggregate result          |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+
        | Field          | An FFT-friendly finite field as       |
        |                | defined in Section 6.1.2              |
        +----------------+---------------------------------------+

                  Table 8: Validity circuit parameters.

   Each gadget G in GADGETS defines a constant DEGREE that specifies the
   circuit's "arithmetic degree".  This is defined to be the degree of
   the polynomial that computes it.  For example, the Mul circuit in
   Section 7.3.1 is defined by the polynomial Mul(x) = x * x, which has
   degree 2.  Hence, the arithmetic degree of this gadget is 2.

   Each gadget also defines a parameter ARITY that specifies the
   circuit's arity (i.e., the number of input wires).

   A concrete Valid provides the following methods for encoding a
   measurement as an input vector, truncating an input vector to the
   length of an aggregatable output, and converting an aggregated output
   to an aggregate result:

   *  Valid.encode(measurement: Measurement) -> Vec[Field] returns a
      vector of length INPUT_LEN representing a measurement.

   *  Valid.truncate(input: Vec[Field]) -> Vec[Field] returns a vector
      of length OUTPUT_LEN representing an aggregatable output.

   *  Valid.decode(output: Vec[Field], num_measurements: Unsigned) ->
      AggResult returns an aggregate result.

   Finally, the following class methods are derived for each concrete
   Valid:

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   # Length of the prover randomness.
   def prove_rand_len(Valid):
       return sum(map(lambda g: g.ARITY, Valid.GADGETS))

   # Length of the query randomness.
   def query_rand_len(Valid):
       return len(Valid.GADGETS)

   # Length of the proof.
   def proof_len(Valid):
       length = 0
       for (g, g_calls) in zip(Valid.GADGETS, Valid.GADGET_CALLS):
           P = next_power_of_2(1 + g_calls)
           length += g.ARITY + g.DEGREE * (P - 1) + 1
       return length

   # Length of the verifier message.
   def verifier_len(Valid):
       length = 1
       for g in Valid.GADGETS:
           length += g.ARITY + 1
       return length

             Figure 18: Derived methods for validity circuits.

7.3.3.  Construction

   This section specifies FlpGeneric, an implementation of the Flp
   interface (Section 7.1).  It has as a generic parameter a validity
   circuit Valid implementing the interface defined in Section 7.3.2.

      NOTE A reference implementation can be found in
      https://github.com/cfrg/draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf/blob/main/poc/
      flp_generic.sage.

   The FLP parameters for FlpGeneric are defined in Table 9.  The
   required methods for generating the proof, generating the verifier,
   and deciding validity are specified in the remaining subsections.

   In the remainder, we let [n] denote the set {1, ..., n} for positive
   integer n.  We also define the following constants:

   *  Let H = len(Valid.GADGETS)

   *  For each i in [H]:

      -  Let G_i = Valid.GADGETS[i]

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      -  Let L_i = Valid.GADGETS[i].ARITY

      -  Let M_i = Valid.GADGET_CALLS[i]

      -  Let P_i = next_power_of_2(M_i+1)

      -  Let alpha_i = Field.gen()^(Field.GEN_ORDER / P_i)

      +================+============================================+
      | Parameter      | Value                                      |
      +================+============================================+
      | PROVE_RAND_LEN | Valid.prove_rand_len() (see Section 7.3.2) |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | QUERY_RAND_LEN | Valid.query_rand_len() (see Section 7.3.2) |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | JOINT_RAND_LEN | Valid.JOINT_RAND_LEN                       |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | INPUT_LEN      | Valid.INPUT_LEN                            |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | OUTPUT_LEN     | Valid.OUTPUT_LEN                           |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | PROOF_LEN      | Valid.proof_len() (see Section 7.3.2)      |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | VERIFIER_LEN   | Valid.verifier_len() (see Section 7.3.2)   |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | Measurement    | Valid.Measurement                          |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+
      | Field          | Valid.Field                                |
      +----------------+--------------------------------------------+

                   Table 9: FLP Parameters of FlpGeneric.

7.3.3.1.  Proof Generation

   On input inp, prove_rand, and joint_rand, the proof is computed as
   follows:

   1.  For each i in [H] create an empty table wire_i.

   2.  Partition the prover randomness prove_rand into subvectors
       seed_1, ..., seed_H where len(seed_i) == L_i for all i in [H].
       Let us call these the "wire seeds" of each gadget.

   3.  Evaluate Valid on input of inp and joint_rand, recording the
       inputs of each gadget in the corresponding table.  Specifically,
       for every i in [H], set wire_i[j-1,k-1] to the value on the jth
       wire into the kth call to gadget G_i.

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   4.  Compute the "wire polynomials".  That is, for every i in [H] and
       j in [L_i], construct poly_wire_i[j-1], the jth wire polynomial
       for the ith gadget, as follows:

       *  Let w = [seed_i[j-1], wire_i[j-1,0], ..., wire_i[j-1,M_i-1]].

       *  Let padded_w = w + Field.zeros(P_i - len(w)).

          NOTE We pad w to the nearest power of 2 so that we can use FFT
          for interpolating the wire polynomials.  Perhaps there is some
          clever math for picking wire_inp in a way that avoids having
          to pad.

       *  Let poly_wire_i[j-1] be the lowest degree polynomial for which
          poly_wire_i[j-1](alpha_i^k) == padded_w[k] for all k in [P_i].

   5.  Compute the "gadget polynomials".  That is, for every i in [H]:

       *  Let poly_gadget_i = G_i(poly_wire_i[0], ..., poly_wire_i[L_i-
          1]).  That is, evaluate the circuit G_i on the wire
          polynomials for the ith gadget.  (Arithmetic is in the ring of
          polynomials over Field.)

   The proof is the vector proof = seed_1 + coeff_1 + ... + seed_H +
   coeff_H, where coeff_i is the vector of coefficients of poly_gadget_i
   for each i in [H].

7.3.3.2.  Query Generation

   On input of inp, proof, query_rand, and joint_rand, the verifier
   message is generated as follows:

   1.  For every i in [H] create an empty table wire_i.

   2.  Partition proof into the subvectors seed_1, coeff_1, ..., seed_H,
       coeff_H defined in Section 7.3.3.1.

   3.  Evaluate Valid on input of inp and joint_rand, recording the
       inputs of each gadget in the corresponding table.  This step is
       similar to the prover's step (3.) except the verifier does not
       evaluate the gadgets.  Instead, it computes the output of the kth
       call to G_i by evaluating poly_gadget_i(alpha_i^k).  Let v denote
       the output of the circuit evaluation.

   4.  Compute the wire polynomials just as in the prover's step (4.).

   5.  Compute the tests for well-formedness of the gadget polynomials.
       That is, for every i in [H]:

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       *  Let t = query_rand[i].  Check if t^(P_i) == 1: If so, then
          raise ERR_ABORT and halt.  (This prevents the verifier from
          inadvertently leaking a gadget output in the verifier
          message.)

       *  Let y_i = poly_gadget_i(t).

       *  For each j in [0,L_i) let x_i[j-1] = poly_wire_i[j-1](t).

   The verifier message is the vector verifier = [v] + x_1 + [y_1] + ...
   + x_H + [y_H].

7.3.3.3.  Decision

   On input of vector verifier, the verifier decides if the input is
   valid as follows:

   1.  Parse verifier into v, x_1, y_1, ..., x_H, y_H as defined in
       Section 7.3.3.2.

   2.  Check for well-formedness of the gadget polynomials.  For every i
       in [H]:

       *  Let z = G_i(x_i).  That is, evaluate the circuit G_i on x_i
          and set z to the output.

       *  If z != y_i, then return False and halt.

   3.  Return True if v == 0 and False otherwise.

7.3.3.4.  Encoding

   The FLP encoding and truncation methods invoke Valid.encode,
   Valid.truncate, and Valid.decode in the natural way.

7.4.  Instantiations

   This section specifies instantiations of Prio3 for various
   measurement types.  Each uses FlpGeneric as the FLP (Section 7.3) and
   is determined by a validity circuit (Section 7.3.2) and a PRG
   (Section 6.2).  Test vectors for each can be found in Appendix "Test
   Vectors".

      NOTE Reference implementations of each of these VDAFs can be found
      in https://github.com/cfrg/draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf/blob/main/poc/
      vdaf_prio3.sage.

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7.4.1.  Prio3Aes128Count

   Our first instance of Prio3 is for a simple counter: Each measurement
   is either one or zero and the aggregate result is the sum of the
   measurements.

   This instance uses PrgAes128 (Section 6.2.1) as its PRG.  Its
   validity circuit, denoted Count, uses Field64 (Table 3) as its finite
   field.  Its gadget, denoted Mul, is the degree-2, arity-2 gadget
   defined as

   def Mul(x, y):
       return x * y

   The validity circuit is defined as

   def Count(inp: Vec[Field64]):
       return Mul(inp[0], inp[0]) - inp[0]

   The measurement is encoded and decoded as a singleton vector in the
   natural way.  The parameters for this circuit are summarized below.

               +================+==========================+
               | Parameter      | Value                    |
               +================+==========================+
               | GADGETS        | [Mul]                    |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | GADGET_CALLS   | [1]                      |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | INPUT_LEN      | 1                        |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | OUTPUT_LEN     | 1                        |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | JOINT_RAND_LEN | 0                        |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | Measurement    | Unsigned, in range [0,2) |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | AggResult      | Unsigned                 |
               +----------------+--------------------------+
               | Field          | Field64 (Table 3)        |
               +----------------+--------------------------+

                  Table 10: Parameters of validity circuit
                                   Count.

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7.4.2.  Prio3Aes128Sum

   The next instance of Prio3 supports summing of integers in a pre-
   determined range.  Each measurement is an integer in range [0,
   2^bits), where bits is an associated parameter.

   This instance of Prio3 uses PrgAes128 (Section 6.2.1) as its PRG.
   Its validity circuit, denoted Sum, uses Field128 (Table 4) as its
   finite field.  The measurement is encoded as a length-bits vector of
   field elements, where the lth element of the vector represents the
   lth bit of the summand:

   def encode(Sum, measurement: Integer):
       if 0 > measurement or measurement >= 2^Sum.INPUT_LEN:
           raise ERR_INPUT

       encoded = []
       for l in range(Sum.INPUT_LEN):
           encoded.append(Sum.Field((measurement >> l) & 1))
       return encoded

   def truncate(Sum, inp):
       decoded = Sum.Field(0)
       for (l, b) in enumerate(inp):
           w = Sum.Field(1 << l)
           decoded += w * b
       return [decoded]

   def decode(Sum, output, _num_measurements):
       return output[0].as_unsigned()

   The validity circuit checks that the input consists of ones and
   zeros.  Its gadget, denoted Range2, is the degree-2, arity-1 gadget
   defined as

   def Range2(x):
       return x^2 - x

   The validity circuit is defined as

   def Sum(inp: Vec[Field128], joint_rand: Vec[Field128]):
       out = Field128(0)
       r = joint_rand[0]
       for x in inp:
           out += r * Range2(x)
           r *= joint_rand[0]
       return out

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            +================+================================+
            | Parameter      | Value                          |
            +================+================================+
            | GADGETS        | [Range2]                       |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | GADGET_CALLS   | [bits]                         |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | INPUT_LEN      | bits                           |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | OUTPUT_LEN     | 1                              |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | JOINT_RAND_LEN | 1                              |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | Measurement    | Unsigned, in range [0, 2^bits) |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | AggResult      | Unsigned                       |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+
            | Field          | Field128 (Table 4)             |
            +----------------+--------------------------------+

               Table 11: Parameters of validity circuit Sum.

7.4.3.  Prio3Aes128Histogram

   This instance of Prio3 allows for estimating the distribution of the
   measurements by computing a simple histogram.  Each measurement is an
   arbitrary integer and the aggregate result counts the number of
   measurements that fall in a set of fixed buckets.

   This instance of Prio3 uses PrgAes128 (Section 6.2.1) as its PRG.
   Its validity circuit, denoted Histogram, uses Field128 (Table 4) as
   its finite field.  The measurement is encoded as a one-hot vector
   representing the bucket into which the measurement falls (let bucket
   denote a sequence of monotonically increasing integers):

   def encode(Histogram, measurement: Integer):
       boundaries = buckets + [Infinity]
       encoded = [Field128(0) for _ in range(len(boundaries))]
       for i in range(len(boundaries)):
           if measurement <= boundaries[i]:
               encoded[i] = Field128(1)
               return encoded

   def truncate(Histogram, inp: Vec[Field128]):
       return inp

   def decode(Histogram, output: Vec[Field128], _num_measurements):
       return [bucket_count.as_unsigned() for bucket_count in output]

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   The validity circuit uses Range2 (see Section 7.4.2) as its single
   gadget.  It checks for one-hotness in two steps, as follows:

   def Histogram(inp: Vec[Field128],
                 joint_rand: Vec[Field128],
                 num_shares: Unsigned):
       # Check that each bucket is one or zero.
       range_check = Field128(0)
       r = joint_rand[0]
       for x in inp:
           range_check += r * Range2(x)
           r *= joint_rand[0]

       # Check that the buckets sum to 1.
       sum_check = -Field128(1) * Field128(num_shares).inv()
       for b in inp:
           sum_check += b

       out = joint_rand[1]   * range_check + \
             joint_rand[1]^2 * sum_check
       return out

   Note that this circuit depends on the number of shares into which the
   input is sharded.  This is provided to the FLP by Prio3.

                  +================+====================+
                  | Parameter      | Value              |
                  +================+====================+
                  | GADGETS        | [Range2]           |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | GADGET_CALLS   | [buckets + 1]      |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | INPUT_LEN      | buckets + 1        |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | OUTPUT_LEN     | buckets + 1        |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | JOINT_RAND_LEN | 2                  |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | Measurement    | Integer            |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | AggResult      | Vec[Unsigned]      |
                  +----------------+--------------------+
                  | Field          | Field128 (Table 4) |
                  +----------------+--------------------+

                      Table 12: Parameters of validity
                             circuit Histogram.

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8.  Poplar1

      NOTE This construction has not undergone significant security
      analysis.

   This section specifies Poplar1, a VDAF for the following task.  Each
   Client holds a string of length BITS and the Aggregators hold a set
   of l-bit strings, where l <= BITS.  We will refer to the latter as
   the set of "candidate prefixes".  The Aggregators' goal is to count
   how many inputs are prefixed by each candidate prefix.

   This functionality is the core component of the Poplar protocol
   [BBCGGI21].  At a high level, the protocol works as follows.

   1.  Each Client splits its input string into input shares and sends
       one share to each Aggregator.

   2.  The Aggregators agree on an initial set of candidate prefixes,
       say 0 and 1.

   3.  The Aggregators evaluate the VDAF on each set of input shares and
       aggregate the recovered output shares.  The aggregation parameter
       is the set of candidate prefixes.

   4.  The Aggregators send their aggregate shares to the Collector, who
       combines them to recover the counts of each candidate prefix.

   5.  Let H denote the set of prefixes that occurred at least t times.
       If the prefixes all have length BITS, then H is the set of t-
       heavy-hitters.  Otherwise compute the next set of candidate
       prefixes as follows.  For each p in H, add add p || 0 and p || 1
       to the set.  Repeat step 3 with the new set of candidate
       prefixes.

   Poplar1 is constructed from an "Incremental Distributed Point
   Function (IDPF)", a primitive described by [BBCGGI21] that
   generalizes the notion of a Distributed Point Function (DPF) [GI14].
   Briefly, a DPF is used to distribute the computation of a "point
   function", a function that evaluates to zero on every input except at
   a programmable "point".  The computation is distributed in such a way
   that no one party knows either the point or what it evaluates to.

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   An IDPF generalizes this "point" to a path on a full binary tree from
   the root to one of the leaves.  It is evaluated on an "index"
   representing a unique node of the tree.  If the node is on the
   programmed path, then function evaluates to to a non-zero value;
   otherwise it evaluates to zero.  This structure allows an IDPF to
   provide the functionality required for the above protocol, while at
   the same time ensuring the same degree of privacy as a DPF.

   Poplar1 composes an IDPF with the "secure sketching" protocol of
   [BBCGGI21].  This protocol ensures that evaluating a set of input
   shares on a unique set of candidate prefixes results in shares of a
   "one-hot" vector, i.e., a vector that is zero everywhere except for
   one element, which is equal to one.

   The remainder of this section is structured as follows.  IDPFs are
   defined in Section 8.1; a concrete instantiation is given
   Section 8.3.  The Poplar1 VDAF is defined in Section 8.2 in terms of
   a generic IDPF.  Finally, a concrete instantiation of Poplar1 is
   specified in Section 8.4; test vectors can be found in Appendix "Test
   Vectors".

8.1.  Incremental Distributed Point Functions (IDPFs)

   An IDPF is defined over a domain of size 2^BITS, where BITS is
   constant defined by the IDPF.  Indexes into the IDPF tree are encoded
   as integers in range [0, 2^BITS).  The Client specifies an index
   alpha and a vector of values beta, one for each "level" L in range
   [0, BITS).  The key generation algorithm generates one IDPF "key" for
   each Aggregator.  When evaluated at level L and index 0 <= prefix <
   2^L, each IDPF key returns an additive share of beta[L] if prefix is
   the L-bit prefix of alpha and shares of zero otherwise.

   An index x is defined to be a prefix of another index y as follows.
   Let LSB(x, N) denote the least significant N bits of positive integer
   x.  By definition, a positive integer 0 <= x < 2^L is said to be the
   length-L prefix of positive integer 0 <= y < 2^BITS if LSB(x, L) is
   equal to the most significant L bits of LSB(y, BITS), For example, 6
   (110 in binary) is the length-3 prefix of 25 (11001), but 7 (111) is
   not.

   Each of the programmed points beta is a vector of elements of some
   finite field.  We distinguish two types of fields: One for inner
   nodes (denoted Idpf.FieldInner), and one for leaf nodes
   (Idpf.FieldLeaf).  (Our instantiation of Poplar1 (Section 8.4) will
   use a much larger field for leaf nodes than for inner nodes.  This is
   to ensure the IDPF is "extractable" as defined in [BBCGGI21],
   Definition 1.)

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   A concrete IDPF defines the types and constants enumerated in
   Table 13.  In the remainder we write Idpf.Vec as shorthand for the
   type Union[Vec[Vec[Idpf.FieldInner]], Vec[Vec[Idpf.FieldLeaf]]].
   (This type denotes either a vector of inner node field elements or
   leaf node field elements.)  The scheme is comprised of the following
   algorithms:

   *  Idpf.gen(alpha: Unsigned, beta_inner: Vec[Vec[Idpf.FieldInner]],
      beta_leaf: Vec[Idpf.FieldLeaf]) -> (Bytes, Vec[Bytes]) is the
      randomized IDPF-key generation algorithm.  Its inputs are the
      index alpha and the values beta.  The value of alpha MUST be in
      range [0, 2^BITS).  The output is a public part that is sent to
      all Aggregators and a vector of private IDPF keys, one for each
      aggregator.

   *  Idpf.eval(agg_id: Unsigned, public_share: Bytes, key: Bytes,
      level: Unsigned, prefixes: Vec[Unsigned]) -> Idpf.Vec is the
      deterministic, stateless IDPF-key evaluation algorithm run by each
      Aggregator.  Its inputs are the Aggregator's unique identifier,
      the public share distributed to all of the Aggregators, the
      Aggregator's IDPF key, the "level" at which to evaluate the IDPF,
      and the sequence of candidate prefixes.  It returns the share of
      the value corresponding to each candidate prefix.

      The output type depends on the value of level: If level <
      Idpf.BITS-1, the output is the value for an inner node, which has
      type Vec[Vec[Idpf.FieldInner]]; otherwise, if level == Idpf.BITS-
      1, then the output is the value for a leaf node, which has type
      Vec[Vec[Idpf.FieldLeaf]].

      The value of level MUST be in range [0, BITS).  The indexes in
      prefixes MUST all be distinct and in range [0, 2^level).

      Applications MUST ensure that the Aggregator's identifier is equal
      to the integer in range [0, SHARES) that matches the index of key
      in the sequence of IDPF keys output by the Client.

   In addition, the following method is derived for each concrete Idpf:

   def current_field(Idpf, level):
       return Idpf.FieldInner if level < Idpf.BITS-1 \
                   else Idpf.FieldLeaf

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   Finally, an implementation note.  The interface for IDPFs specified
   here is stateless, in the sense that there is no state carried
   between IDPF evaluations.  This is to align the IDPF syntax with the
   VDAF abstraction boundary, which does not include shared state across
   across VDAF evaluations.  In practice, of course, it will often be
   beneficial to expose a stateful API for IDPFs and carry the state
   across evaluations.  See Section 8.3 for details.

     +============+==================================================+
     | Parameter  | Description                                      |
     +============+==================================================+
     | SHARES     | Number of IDPF keys output by IDPF-key generator |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
     | BITS       | Length in bits of each input string              |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
     | VALUE_LEN  | Number of field elements of each output value    |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
     | KEY_SIZE   | Size in bytes of each IDPF key                   |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
     | FieldInner | Implementation of Field (Section 6.1) used for   |
     |            | values of inner nodes                            |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
     | FieldLeaf  | Implementation of Field used for values of leaf  |
     |            | nodes                                            |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+
     | Prg        | Implementation of Prg (Section 6.2)              |
     +------------+--------------------------------------------------+

         Table 13: Constants and types defined by a concrete IDPF.

8.2.  Construction

   This section specifies Poplar1, an implementation of the Vdaf
   interface (Section 5).  It is defined in terms of any Idpf
   (Section 8.1) for which Idpf.SHARES == 2 and Idpf.VALUE_LEN == 2.
   The associated constants and types required by the Vdaf interface are
   defined in Table 14.  The methods required for sharding, preparation,
   aggregation, and unsharding are described in the remaining
   subsections.

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          +=================+==================================+
          | Parameter       | Value                            |
          +=================+==================================+
          | VERIFY_KEY_SIZE | Idpf.Prg.SEED_SIZE               |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | ROUNDS          | 2                                |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | SHARES          | 2                                |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | Measurement     | Unsigned                         |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | AggParam        | Tuple[Unsigned, Vec[Unsigned]]   |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | Prep            | Tuple[Bytes, Unsigned, Idpf.Vec] |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | OutShare        | Idpf.Vec                         |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+
          | AggResult       | Vec[Unsigned]                    |
          +-----------------+----------------------------------+

          Table 14: Associated parameters for the Poplar1 VDAF.

8.2.1.  Client

   The client's input is an IDPF index, denoted alpha.  The programmed
   IDPF values are pairs of field elements (1, k) where each k is chosen
   at random.  This random value is used as part of the secure sketching
   protocol of [BBCGGI21], Appendix C.4.  After evaluating their IDPF
   key shares on a given sequence of candidate prefixes, the sketching
   protocol is used by the Aggregators to verify that they hold shares
   of a one-hot vector.  In addition, for each level of the tree, the
   prover generates random elements a, b, and c and computes

       A = -2*a + k
       B = a^2 + b - k*a + c

   and sends additive shares of a, b, c, A and B to the Aggregators.
   Putting everything together, the input-distribution algorithm is
   defined as follows.  Function encode_input_shares is defined in
   Section 8.2.5.

   def measurement_to_input_shares(Poplar1, measurement):
       dst = VERSION + I2OSP(Poplar1.ID, 4)
       prg = Poplar1.Idpf.Prg(
           gen_rand(Poplar1.Idpf.Prg.SEED_SIZE), dst + byte(255))

       # Construct the IDPF values for each level of the IDPF tree.
       # Each "data" value is 1; in addition, the Client generates

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       # a random "authenticator" value used by the Aggregators to
       # compute the sketch during preparation. This sketch is used
       # to verify the one-hotness of their output shares.
       beta_inner = [
           [Poplar1.Idpf.FieldInner(1), k] \
               for k in prg.next_vec(Poplar1.Idpf.FieldInner,
                                     Poplar1.Idpf.BITS - 1) ]
       beta_leaf = [Poplar1.Idpf.FieldLeaf(1)] + \
           prg.next_vec(Poplar1.Idpf.FieldLeaf, 1)

       # Generate the IDPF keys.
       (public_share, keys) = \
           Poplar1.Idpf.gen(measurement, beta_inner, beta_leaf)

       # Generate correlated randomness used by the Aggregators to
       # compute a sketch over their output shares. PRG seeds are
       # used to encode shares of the `(a, b, c)` triples.
       # (See [BBCGGI21, Appendix C.4].)
       corr_seed = [
           gen_rand(Poplar1.Idpf.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
           gen_rand(Poplar1.Idpf.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
       ]
       corr_prg = [
           Poplar1.Idpf.Prg(corr_seed[0], dst + byte(0)),
           Poplar1.Idpf.Prg(corr_seed[1], dst + byte(1)),
       ]

       # For each level of the IDPF tree, shares of the `(A, B)`
       # pairs are computed from the corresponding `(a, b, c)`
       # triple and authenticator value `k`.
       corr_inner = [[], []]
       for level in range(Poplar1.Idpf.BITS):
           Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(level)
           k = beta_inner[level][1] if level < Poplar1.Idpf.BITS - 1 \
               else beta_leaf[1]
           (a, b, c) = vec_add(corr_prg[0].next_vec(Field, 3),
                               corr_prg[1].next_vec(Field, 3))
           A = -Field(2) * a + k
           B = a^2 + b - a * k + c
           corr1 = prg.next_vec(Field, 2)
           corr0 = vec_sub([A, B], corr1)
           if level < Poplar1.Idpf.BITS - 1:
               corr_inner[0] += corr0
               corr_inner[1] += corr1
           else:
               corr_leaf = [corr0, corr1]

       # Each input share consists of the Aggregator's IDPF key

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       # and a share of the correlated randomness.
       return (public_share,
               Poplar1.encode_input_shares(
                   keys, corr_seed, corr_inner, corr_leaf))

          Figure 19: The input-distribution algorithm for Poplar1.

8.2.2.  Preparation

   The aggregation parameter encodes a sequence of candidate prefixes.
   When an Aggregator receives an input share from the Client, it begins
   by evaluating its IDPF share on each candidate prefix, recovering a
   data_share and auth_share for each.  The Aggregators use these and
   the correlation shares provided by the Client to verify that the
   sequence of data_share values are additive shares of a one-hot
   vector.

   The algorithms below make use of auxiliary functions verify_context()
   and decode_input_share() defined in Section 8.2.5.

   def prep_init(Poplar1, verify_key, agg_id, agg_param,
                 nonce, public_share, input_share):
       dst = VERSION + I2OSP(Poplar1.ID, 4)
       (level, prefixes) = agg_param
       (key, corr_seed, corr_inner, corr_leaf) = \
           Poplar1.decode_input_share(input_share)

       # Evaluate the IDPF key at the given set of prefixes.
       value = Poplar1.Idpf.eval(
           agg_id, public_share, key, level, prefixes)

       # Get correlation shares for the given level of the IDPF tree.
       #
       # Implementation note: Computing the shares of `(a, b, c)`
       # requires expanding PRG seeds into a vector of field elements
       # of length proportional to the level of the tree. Typically
       # the IDPF will be evaluated incrementally beginning with
       # `level == 0`. Implementations can save computation by
       # storing the intermediate PRG state between evaluations.
       corr_prg = Poplar1.Idpf.Prg(corr_seed, dst + byte(agg_id))
       for current_level in range(level+1):
           Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(current_level)
           (a_share, b_share, c_share) = corr_prg.next_vec(Field, 3)
       (A_share, B_share) = corr_inner[2*level:2*(level+1)] \
           if level < Poplar1.Idpf.BITS - 1 else corr_leaf

       # Compute the Aggregator's first round of the sketch. These are
       # called the "masked input values" [BBCGGI21, Appendix C.4].

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       Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(level)
       verify_rand_prg = Poplar1.Idpf.Prg(verify_key,
           dst + Poplar1.verify_context(nonce, level, prefixes))
       verify_rand = verify_rand_prg.next_vec(Field, len(prefixes))
       sketch_share = [a_share, b_share, c_share]
       out_share = []
       for (i, r) in enumerate(verify_rand):
           (data_share, auth_share) = value[i]
           sketch_share[0] += data_share * r
           sketch_share[1] += data_share * r^2
           sketch_share[2] += auth_share * r
           out_share.append(data_share)

       prep_mem = sketch_share \
                   + [A_share, B_share, Field(agg_id)] \
                   + out_share
       return (b'ready', level, prep_mem)

   def prep_next(Poplar1, prep_state, opt_sketch):
       (step, level, prep_mem) = prep_state
       Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(level)

       # Aggregators exchange masked input values (step (3.)
       # of [BBCGGI21, Appendix C.4]).
       if step == b'ready' and opt_sketch == None:
           sketch_share, prep_mem = prep_mem[:3], prep_mem[3:]
           return ((b'sketch round 1', level, prep_mem),
                   Field.encode_vec(sketch_share))

       # Aggregators exchange evaluated shares (step (4.)).
       elif step == b'sketch round 1' and opt_sketch != None:
           prev_sketch = Field.decode_vec(opt_sketch)
           if len(prev_sketch) == 0:
               prev_sketch = Field.zeros(3)
           elif len(prev_sketch) != 3:
               raise ERR_INPUT # prep message malformed
           (A_share, B_share, agg_id), prep_mem = \
               prep_mem[:3], prep_mem[3:]
           sketch_share = [
               agg_id * (prev_sketch[0]^2 \
                           - prev_sketch[1]
                           - prev_sketch[2]) \
                   + A_share * prev_sketch[0] \
                   + B_share
           ]
           return ((b'sketch round 2', level, prep_mem),
                   Field.encode_vec(sketch_share))

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       elif step == b'sketch round 2' and opt_sketch != None:
           prev_sketch = Field.decode_vec(opt_sketch)
           if len(prev_sketch) == 0:
               prev_sketch = Field.zeros(1)
           elif len(prev_sketch) != 1:
               raise ERR_INPUT # prep message malformed
           if prev_sketch[0] != Field(0):
               raise ERR_VERIFY
           return prep_mem # Output shares

       raise ERR_INPUT # unexpected input

   def prep_shares_to_prep(Poplar1, agg_param, prep_shares):
       if len(prep_shares) != 2:
           raise ERR_INPUT # unexpected number of prep shares
       (level, _) = agg_param
       Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(level)
       sketch = vec_add(Field.decode_vec(prep_shares[0]),
                        Field.decode_vec(prep_shares[1]))
       if sketch == Field.zeros(len(sketch)):
           # In order to reduce communication overhead, let the
           # empty string denote the zero vector of the required
           # length.
           return b''
       return Field.encode_vec(sketch)

                 Figure 20: Preparation state for Poplar1.

8.2.3.  Aggregation

   Aggregation involves simply adding up the output shares.

   def out_shares_to_agg_share(Poplar1, agg_param, out_shares):
       (level, prefixes) = agg_param
       Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(level)
       agg_share = Field.zeros(len(prefixes))
       for out_share in out_shares:
           agg_share = vec_add(agg_share, out_share)
       return Field.encode_vec(agg_share)

               Figure 21: Aggregation algorithm for Poplar1.

8.2.4.  Unsharding

   Finally, the Collector unshards the aggregate result by adding up the
   aggregate shares.

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   def agg_shares_to_result(Poplar1, agg_param,
                            agg_shares, _num_measurements):
       (level, prefixes) = agg_param
       Field = Poplar1.Idpf.current_field(level)
       agg = Field.zeros(len(prefixes))
       for agg_share in agg_shares:
           agg = vec_add(agg, Field.decode_vec(agg_share))
       return list(map(lambda x: x.as_unsigned(), agg))

        Figure 22: Computation of the aggregate result for Poplar1.

8.2.5.  Auxiliary Functions

   def encode_input_shares(Poplar1, keys,
                           corr_seed, corr_inner, corr_leaf):
       input_shares = []
       for (key, seed, inner, leaf) in zip(keys,
                                           corr_seed,
                                           corr_inner,
                                           corr_leaf):
           encoded = Bytes()
           encoded += key
           encoded += seed
           encoded += Poplar1.Idpf.FieldInner.encode_vec(inner)
           encoded += Poplar1.Idpf.FieldLeaf.encode_vec(leaf)
           input_shares.append(encoded)
       return input_shares

   def decode_input_share(Poplar1, encoded):
       l = Poplar1.Idpf.KEY_SIZE
       key, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       l = Poplar1.Idpf.Prg.SEED_SIZE
       corr_seed, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       l = Poplar1.Idpf.FieldInner.ENCODED_SIZE \
           * 2 * (Poplar1.Idpf.BITS - 1)
       encoded_corr_inner, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       corr_inner = Poplar1.Idpf.FieldInner.decode_vec(
           encoded_corr_inner)
       l = Poplar1.Idpf.FieldLeaf.ENCODED_SIZE * 2
       encoded_corr_leaf, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       corr_leaf = Poplar1.Idpf.FieldLeaf.decode_vec(
           encoded_corr_leaf)
       if len(encoded) != 0:
           raise ERR_INPUT
       return (key, corr_seed, corr_inner, corr_leaf)

   def encode_agg_param(Poplar1, level, prefixes):
       if level > 2^16 - 1:

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           raise ERR_INPUT # level too deep
       if len(prefixes) > 2^16 - 1:
           raise ERR_INPUT # too many prefixes
       encoded = Bytes()
       encoded += I2OSP(level, 2)
       encoded += I2OSP(len(prefixes), 2)
       packed = 0
       for (i, prefix) in enumerate(prefixes):
           packed |= prefix << ((level+1) * i)
       l = floor(((level+1) * len(prefixes) + 7) / 8)
       encoded += I2OSP(packed, l)
       return encoded

   def verify_context(Poplar1, nonce, level, prefixes):
       if len(nonce) > 255:
           raise ERR_INPUT # nonce too long
       context = Bytes()
       context += byte(254)
       context += byte(len(nonce))
       context += nonce
       context += Poplar1.encode_agg_param(level, prefixes)
       return context

                  Figure 23: Helper functions for Poplar1.

8.3.  The IDPF scheme of [BBCGGI21]

   In this section we specify a concrete IDPF, called IdpfPoplar,
   suitable for instantiating Poplar1.  The scheme gets its name from
   the name of the protocol of [BBCGGI21].

      TODO We should consider giving IdpfPoplar a more distinctive name.

   The constant and type definitions required by the Idpf interface are
   given in Table 15.

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         +============+=========================================+
         | Parameter  | Value                                   |
         +============+=========================================+
         | SHARES     | 2                                       |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+
         | BITS       | any positive integer                    |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+
         | VALUE_LEN  | any positive integer                    |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+
         | KEY_SIZE   | Prg.SEED_SIZE                           |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+
         | FieldInner | Field64 (Table 3)                       |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+
         | FieldLeaf  | Field255 (Table 5)                      |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+
         | Prg        | any implementation of Prg (Section 6.2) |
         +------------+-----------------------------------------+

         Table 15: Constants and type definitions for IdpfPoplar.

8.3.1.  Key Generation

      TODO Describe the construction in prose, beginning with a gentle
      introduction to the high level idea.

   The description of the IDPF-key generation algorithm makes use of
   auxiliary functions extend(), convert(), and encode_public_share()
   defined in Section 8.3.3.  In the following, we let Field2 denote the
   field GF(2).

   def gen(IdpfPoplar, alpha, beta_inner, beta_leaf):
       if alpha >= 2^IdpfPoplar.BITS:
           raise ERR_INPUT # alpha too long
       if len(beta_inner) != IdpfPoplar.BITS - 1:
           raise ERR_INPUT # beta_inner vector is the wrong size

       init_seed = [
           gen_rand(IdpfPoplar.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
           gen_rand(IdpfPoplar.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
       ]

       seed = init_seed.copy()
       ctrl = [Field2(0), Field2(1)]
       correction_words = []
       for level in range(IdpfPoplar.BITS):
           keep = (alpha >> (IdpfPoplar.BITS - level - 1)) & 1
           lose = 1 - keep
           bit = Field2(keep)

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           (s0, t0) = IdpfPoplar.extend(seed[0])
           (s1, t1) = IdpfPoplar.extend(seed[1])
           seed_cw = xor(s0[lose], s1[lose])
           ctrl_cw = (
               t0[0] + t1[0] + bit + Field2(1),
               t0[1] + t1[1] + bit,
           )

           x0 = xor(s0[keep], seed_cw) if ctrl[0] == Field2(1) \
                   else s0[keep]
           x1 = xor(s1[keep], seed_cw) if ctrl[1] == Field2(1) \
                   else s1[keep]
           (seed[0], w0) = IdpfPoplar.convert(level, x0)
           (seed[1], w1) = IdpfPoplar.convert(level, x1)
           ctrl[0] = t0[keep] + ctrl[0] * ctrl_cw[keep]
           ctrl[1] = t1[keep] + ctrl[1] * ctrl_cw[keep]

           b = beta_inner[level] if level < IdpfPoplar.BITS-1 \
                   else beta_leaf
           if len(b) != IdpfPoplar.VALUE_LEN:
               raise ERR_INPUT # beta too long or too short

           w_cw = vec_add(vec_sub(b, w0), w1)
           if ctrl[1] == Field2(1):
               w_cw = vec_neg(w_cw)
           correction_words.append((seed_cw, ctrl_cw, w_cw))

       public_share = IdpfPoplar.encode_public_share(correction_words)
       return (public_share, init_seed)

          Figure 24: IDPF-key generation algorithm of IdpfPoplar.

8.3.2.  Key Evaluation

      TODO Describe in prose how IDPF-key evaluation algorithm works.

   The description of the IDPF-evaluation algorithm makes use of
   auxiliary functions extend(), convert(), and decode_public_share()
   defined in Section 8.3.3.

   def eval(IdpfPoplar, agg_id, public_share, init_seed,
            level, prefixes):
       if agg_id >= IdpfPoplar.SHARES:
           raise ERR_INPUT # invalid aggregator ID
       if level >= IdpfPoplar.BITS:
           raise ERR_INPUT # level too deep
       if len(set(prefixes)) != len(prefixes):
           raise ERR_INPUT # candidate prefixes are non-unique

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       correction_words = IdpfPoplar.decode_public_share(public_share)
       out_share = []
       for prefix in prefixes:
           if prefix >= 2^(level+1):
               raise ERR_INPUT # prefix too long

           # The Aggregator's output share is the value of a node of
           # the IDPF tree at the given `level`. The node's value is
           # computed by traversing the path defined by the candidate
           # `prefix`. Each node in the tree is represented by a seed
           # (`seed`) and a set of control bits (`ctrl`).
           seed = init_seed
           ctrl = Field2(agg_id)
           for current_level in range(level+1):
               bit = (prefix >> (level - current_level)) & 1

               # Implementation note: Typically the current round of
               # candidate prefixes would have been derived from
               # aggregate results computed during previous rounds. For
               # example, when using `IdpfPoplar` to compute heavy
               # hitters, a string whose hit count exceeded the given
               # threshold in the last round would be the prefix of each
               # `prefix` in the current round. (See [BBCGGI21,
               # Section 5.1].) In this case, part of the path would
               # have already been traversed.
               #
               # Re-computing nodes along previously traversed paths is
               # wasteful. Implementations can eliminate this added
               # complexity by caching nodes (i.e., `(seed, ctrl)`
               # pairs) output by previous calls to `eval_next()`.
               (seed, ctrl, y) = IdpfPoplar.eval_next(seed, ctrl,
                   correction_words[current_level], current_level, bit)
           out_share.append(y if agg_id == 0 else vec_neg(y))
       return out_share

   # Compute the next node in the IDPF tree along the path determined by
   # a candidate prefix. The next node is determined by `bit`, the bit
   # of the prefix corresponding to the next level of the tree.
   #
   # TODO Consider implementing some version of the optimization
   # discussed at the end of [BBCGGI21, Appendix C.2]. This could on
   # average reduce the number of AES calls by a constant factor.
   def eval_next(IdpfPoplar, prev_seed, prev_ctrl,
                 correction_word, level, bit):
       (seed_cw, ctrl_cw, w_cw) = correction_word
       (s, t) = IdpfPoplar.extend(prev_seed)
       if prev_ctrl == Field2(1):
           s[0] = xor(s[0], seed_cw)

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           s[1] = xor(s[1], seed_cw)
           t[0] = t[0] + ctrl_cw[0]
           t[1] = t[1] + ctrl_cw[1]

       next_ctrl = t[bit]
       (next_seed, y) = IdpfPoplar.convert(level, s[bit])
       if next_ctrl == Field2(1):
           y = vec_add(y, w_cw)
       return (next_seed, next_ctrl, y)

       Figure 25: IDPF-evaluation generation algorithm of IdpfPoplar.

8.3.3.  Auxiliary Functions

   def extend(IdpfPoplar, seed):
       dst = VERSION + b' idpf poplar extend'
       prg = IdpfPoplar.Prg(seed, dst)
       s = [
           prg.next(IdpfPoplar.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
           prg.next(IdpfPoplar.Prg.SEED_SIZE),
       ]
       b = OS2IP(prg.next(1))
       t = [Field2(b & 1), Field2((b >> 1) & 1)]
       return (s, t)

   def convert(IdpfPoplar, level, seed):
       dst = VERSION + b' idpf poplar convert'
       prg = IdpfPoplar.Prg(seed, dst)
       next_seed = prg.next(IdpfPoplar.Prg.SEED_SIZE)
       Field = IdpfPoplar.current_field(level)
       w = prg.next_vec(Field, IdpfPoplar.VALUE_LEN)
       return (next_seed, w)

   def encode_public_share(IdpfPoplar, correction_words):
       encoded = Bytes()
       packed_ctrl = 0
       for (level, (_, ctrl_cw, _)) \
           in enumerate(correction_words):
           packed_ctrl |= ctrl_cw[0].as_unsigned() << (2*level)
           packed_ctrl |= ctrl_cw[1].as_unsigned() << (2*level+1)
       l = floor((2*IdpfPoplar.BITS + 7) / 8)
       encoded += I2OSP(packed_ctrl, l)
       for (level, (seed_cw, _, w_cw)) \
           in enumerate(correction_words):
           Field = IdpfPoplar.current_field(level)
           encoded += seed_cw
           encoded += Field.encode_vec(w_cw)
       return encoded

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   def decode_public_share(IdpfPoplar, encoded):
       l = floor((2*IdpfPoplar.BITS + 7) / 8)
       encoded_ctrl, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
       packed_ctrl = OS2IP(encoded_ctrl)
       correction_words = []
       for level in range(IdpfPoplar.BITS):
           Field = IdpfPoplar.current_field(level)
           ctrl_cw = (Field2(packed_ctrl & 1),
                      Field2((packed_ctrl >> 1) & 1))
           packed_ctrl >>= 2
           l = IdpfPoplar.Prg.SEED_SIZE
           seed_cw, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
           l = Field.ENCODED_SIZE * IdpfPoplar.VALUE_LEN
           encoded_w_cw, encoded = encoded[:l], encoded[l:]
           w_cw = Field.decode_vec(encoded_w_cw)
           correction_words.append((seed_cw, ctrl_cw, w_cw))
       if len(encoded) != 0:
           raise ERR_DECODE
       return correction_words

                Figure 26: Helper functions for IdpfPoplar.

8.4.  Poplar1Aes128

   We refer to Poplar1 instantiated with IdpfPoplar (VALUE_LEN == 2) and
   PrgAes128 (Section 6.2.1) as Poplar1Aes128.  This VDAF is suitable
   for any positive value of BITS.  Test vectors can be found in
   Appendix "Test Vectors".

9.  Security Considerations

      NOTE: This is a brief outline of the security considerations.
      This section will be filled out more as the draft matures and
      security analyses are completed.

   VDAFs have two essential security goals:

   1.  Privacy: An attacker that controls the network, the Collector,
       and a subset of Clients and Aggregators learns nothing about the
       measurements of honest Clients beyond what it can deduce from the
       aggregate result.

   2.  Robustness: An attacker that controls the network and a subset of
       Clients cannot cause the Collector to compute anything other than
       the aggregate of the measurements of honest Clients.

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   Note that, to achieve robustness, it is important to ensure that the
   verification key distributed to the Aggregators (verify_key, see
   Section 5.2) is never revealed to the Clients.

   It is also possible to consider a stronger form of robustness, where
   the attacker also controls a subset of Aggregators (see [BBCGGI19],
   Section 6.3).  To satisfy this stronger notion of robustness, it is
   necessary to prevent the attacker from sharing the verification key
   with the Clients.  It is therefore RECOMMENDED that the Aggregators
   generate verify_key only after a set of Client inputs has been
   collected for verification, and re-generate them for each such set of
   inputs.

   In order to achieve robustness, the Aggregators MUST ensure that the
   nonces used to process the measurements in a batch are all unique.

   A VDAF is the core cryptographic primitive of a protocol that
   achieves the above privacy and robustness goals.  It is not
   sufficient on its own, however.  The application will need to assure
   a few security properties, for example:

   *  Securely distributing the long-lived parameters.

   *  Establishing secure channels:

      -  Confidential and authentic channels among Aggregators, and
         between the Aggregators and the Collector; and

      -  Confidential and Aggregator-authenticated channels between
         Clients and Aggregators.

   *  Enforcing the non-collusion properties required of the specific
      VDAF in use.

   In such an environment, a VDAF provides the high-level privacy
   property described above: The Collector learns only the aggregate
   measurement, and nothing about individual measurements aside from
   what can be inferred from the aggregate result.  The Aggregators
   learn neither individual measurements nor the aggregate result.  The
   Collector is assured that the aggregate statistic accurately reflects
   the inputs as long as the Aggregators correctly executed their role
   in the VDAF.

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   On their own, VDAFs do not mitigate Sybil attacks [Dou02].  In this
   attack, the adversary observes a subset of input shares transmitted
   by a Client it is interested in.  It allows the input shares to be
   processed, but corrupts and picks bogus inputs for the remaining
   Clients.  Applications can guard against these risks by adding
   additional controls on measurement submission, such as client
   authentication and rate limits.

   VDAFs do not inherently provide differential privacy [Dwo06].  The
   VDAF approach to private measurement can be viewed as complementary
   to differential privacy, relying on non-collusion instead of
   statistical noise to protect the privacy of the inputs.  It is
   possible that a future VDAF could incorporate differential privacy
   features, e.g., by injecting noise before the sharding stage and
   removing it after unsharding.

10.  IANA Considerations

   A codepoint for each (V)DAF in this document is defined in the table
   below.  Note that 0xFFFF0000 through 0xFFFFFFFF are reserved for
   private use.

      +===============+======================+======+===============+
      | Value         | Scheme               | Type | Reference     |
      +===============+======================+======+===============+
      | 0x00000000    | Prio3Aes128Count     | VDAF | Section 7.4.1 |
      +---------------+----------------------+------+---------------+
      | 0x00000001    | Prio3Aes128Sum       | VDAF | Section 7.4.2 |
      +---------------+----------------------+------+---------------+
      | 0x00000002    | Prio3Aes128Histogram | VDAF | Section 7.4.3 |
      +---------------+----------------------+------+---------------+
      | 0x00000003 to | reserved for Prio3   | VDAF | n/a           |
      | 0x00000FFF    |                      |      |               |
      +---------------+----------------------+------+---------------+
      | 0x00001000    | Poplar1Aes128        | VDAF | Section 8.4   |
      +---------------+----------------------+------+---------------+
      | 0xFFFF0000 to | reserved             | n/a  | n/a           |
      | 0xFFFFFFFF    |                      |      |               |
      +---------------+----------------------+------+---------------+

                 Table 16: Unique identifiers for (V)DAFs.

      TODO Add IANA considerations for the codepoints summarized in
      Table 16.

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      OPEN ISSUE Currently the scheme includes the PRG.  This means that
      we need bits of the codepoint to differentiate between PRGs.  We
      could instead make the PRG generic (e.g., Prio3Count(Aes128)
      instead of Prio3Aes128Count) and define a separate codepoint.

11.  References

11.1.  Normative References

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc2119>.

   [RFC4493]  Song, JH., Poovendran, R., Lee, J., and T. Iwata, "The
              AES-CMAC Algorithm", RFC 4493, DOI 10.17487/RFC4493, June
              2006, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc4493>.

   [RFC8017]  Moriarty, K., Ed., Kaliski, B., Jonsson, J., and A. Rusch,
              "PKCS #1: RSA Cryptography Specifications Version 2.2",
              RFC 8017, DOI 10.17487/RFC8017, November 2016,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8017>.

   [RFC8174]  Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
              2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
              May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc8174>.

11.2.  Informative References

   [AGJOP21]  Addanki, S., Garbe, K., Jaffe, E., Ostrovsky, R., and A.
              Polychroniadou, "Prio+: Privacy Preserving Aggregate
              Statistics via Boolean Shares", 2021,
              <https://ia.cr/2021/576>.

   [BBCGGI19] Boneh, D., Boyle, E., Corrigan-Gibbs, H., Gilboa, N., and
              Y. Ishai, "Zero-Knowledge Proofs on Secret-Shared Data via
              Fully Linear PCPs", CRYPTO 2019 , 2019,
              <https://ia.cr/2019/188>.

   [BBCGGI21] Boneh, D., Boyle, E., Corrigan-Gibbs, H., Gilboa, N., and
              Y. Ishai, "Lightweight Techniques for Private Heavy
              Hitters", IEEE S&P 2021 , 2021, <https://ia.cr/2021/017>.

   [CGB17]    Corrigan-Gibbs, H. and D. Boneh, "Prio: Private, Robust,
              and Scalable Computation of Aggregate Statistics", NSDI
              2017 , 2017,
              <https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/3154630.3154652>.

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   [DAP]      Geoghegan, T., Patton, C., Rescorla, E., and C. A. Wood,
              "Distributed Aggregation Protocol for Privacy Preserving
              Measurement", Work in Progress, Internet-Draft, draft-
              ietf-ppm-dap-01, 11 July 2022,
              <https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-ppm-dap-
              01>.

   [Dou02]    Douceur, J., "The Sybil Attack", IPTPS 2002 , 2002,
              <https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-45748-8_24>.

   [Dwo06]    Dwork, C., "Differential Privacy", ICALP 2006 , 2006,
              <https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/11787006_1>.

   [ENPA]     "Exposure Notification Privacy-preserving Analytics (ENPA)
              White Paper", 2021, <https://covid19-static.cdn-
              apple.com/applications/covid19/current/static/contact-
              tracing/pdf/ENPA_White_Paper.pdf>.

   [EPK14]    Erlingsson, Ú., Pihur, V., and A. Korolova, "RAPPOR:
              Randomized Aggregatable Privacy-Preserving Ordinal
              Response", CCS 2014 , 2014,
              <https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2660267.2660348>.

   [GI14]     Gilboa, N. and Y. Ishai, "Distributed Point Functions and
              Their Applications", EUROCRYPT 2014 , 2014,
              <https://link.springer.com/
              chapter/10.1007/978-3-642-55220-5_35>.

   [OriginTelemetry]
              "Origin Telemetry", 2020, <https://firefox-source-
              docs.mozilla.org/toolkit/components/telemetry/collection/
              origin.html>.

Acknowledgments

   Thanks to David Cook, Henry Corrigan-Gibbs, Armando Faz-Hernandez,
   Simon Friedberger, Tim Geoghegan, Mariana Raykova, Jacob Rothstein,
   and Christopher Wood for useful feedback on and contributions to the
   spec.

Test Vectors

      NOTE Machine-readable test vectors can be found at
      https://github.com/cfrg/draft-irtf-cfrg-vdaf/tree/main/poc/
      test_vec.

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   Test vectors cover the generation of input shares and the conversion
   of input shares into output shares.  Vectors specify the verification
   key, measurements, aggregation parameter, and any parameters needed
   to construct the VDAF.  (For example, for Prio3Aes128Sum, the user
   specifies the number of bits for representing each summand.)

   Byte strings are encoded in hexadecimal To make the tests
   deterministic, gen_rand() was replaced with a function that returns
   the requested number of 0x01 octets.

Prio3Aes128Count

verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
upload_0:
  measurement: 1
  nonce: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
  public_share: >-
  input_share_0: >-
    ad8bb894e3222b47b70eb67d4f70cb78644826d67d31129e422b910cf0aab70c0b78
    fa57b4a7b3aaafae57bd1012e813
  input_share_1: >-
    0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
  round_0:
    prep_share_0: >-
      38d535dd68f3c02ed6681f7ff24239d46fde93c8402d24ebbafa25c77ca3535d
    prep_share_1: >-
      c72aca21970c3fd35274476a1cddd4bb4efa24ee0d71473e4a0a23713a347d78
    prep_message: >-
  out_share_0:
    - 12505291739929652039
  out_share_1:
    - 5941452329484932283
agg_share_0: >-
  ad8bb894e3222b47
agg_share_1: >-
  5274476a1cddd4bb
agg_result: 1

Prio3Aes128Sum

bits: 8
verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
upload_0:
  measurement: 100
  nonce: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
  public_share: >-
  input_share_0: >-
    fc1e42a024e3d8b45f63f485ebe2dc8a356c5e5780a0bd751184e6a02a96c0767f51

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 77]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

    8e87282ebdc039590aef02e40e5492c9eb69dd22b6b4f1d630e7ca8612b7a7e090b3
    9460bc4036345f5ef537d691fd585bc05a2ea580c7e354680afd0fd49f3d083d5e38
    3b97755a842cf5e69870a970b14a10595c0c639ad2e7bda42c7146c4b69fd79e7403
    d89dac5816d0dc6f2bb987fccca4c4aee64444b7f46431433c59c6e7f2839fe2b7ad
    9316d31a52dcc0df07f1da14aa38e0cd88de380fda29b33704e8c3439376762739aa
    5b5cff9e925939773d24ca0e75bcf87149c9bcc2f8462afa6b50513ab003ac00c9ae
    3685ea52bdee3c814ffd5afc8357d93454b3ffaf0b5e9fd351730f0d55aed54a9cfa
    86f9119601ce9857ee0af3f579251bcc7ffe51b8393adc36ab6142eb0e0d07c9b2d5
    ab71d8d5639f32c61f7d59b45a95129cbc76d7e30c02a1329454f843553413d4e84b
    cab2c3ba1a0150292026dfa37488da5dd639c53edd51bf4eb5aa54d5b165fcd55d10
    f3496008f4e3b6d3eb200c19c5b9c42ad4f12977a857d02f787b14ced27fc5eefb05
    722b372a7d48c1891d30a32d84ec8d1f9a783a38bfac2793f0da6796cff90521e1d7
    3f497f7d2c910b7fbbea2ba4b906d437a53bcbed16986f5646fd238e736f1c3e9d3a
    910218ce7f48dea3e9a1a848c580a1c506a80edb0c0a973a269667475ce88f442467
    4b14a3a8f2b71ef529d2ca96a3c5e4da384545749a55188d4de0074ad601695e934c
    9fe71d27c139b7678ead7f904cd2ae2a3aafa96d8211579e391507df96bf42c383f2
    ac71d7a558ebf1e3d5ab086b65422415bd24be9c979ca5b4f381d51b06ec4f6740b1
    a084999cd95fe63fec4a019f635640ba18d42312de7d1994947502b9010101010101
    010101010101010101015f0721f50826593dc3908dad39353846
  input_share_1: >-
    01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
    0101010101010101010101010101094240ceae2d63ba1bdda997fa0bcbd8
  round_0:
    prep_share_0: >-
      0a85b5e51cacf514ee9e9bbe5d3ac023795e910b765411e5cea8ff187973640694
      bd740cc15bc9cad60bc85785206062094240ceae2d63ba1bdda997fa0bcbd8
    prep_share_1: >-
      f57a4a1ae3530acf11616441a2c53fde804d262dc42e15e556ee02c588c3ca9d92
      4eefa735a95f6e420f2c5161706e025f0721f50826593dc3908dad39353846
    prep_message: >-
      60af733578d766f2305c1d53c840b4b5
  out_share_0:
    - 227608477929192160221239678567201956832
  out_share_1:
    - 112673888991746302725626094800698809477
agg_share_0: >-
  ab3bcc5ef693737a7a3e76cd9face3e0
agg_share_1: >-
  54c433a1096c8c6985c1893260531c85
agg_result: 100

Prio3Aes128Histogram

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 78]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

buckets: [1, 10, 100]
verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
upload_0:
  measurement: 50
  nonce: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
  public_share: >-
  input_share_0: >-
    ee1076c1ebc2d48a557a71031bc9dd5c9cd5e91180bbb51f4ac366946bcbfa93b908
    792bd15d402f4ac8da264e24a20f645ef68472180c5894bac704ae0675d7f16776df
    4f93852a40b514593a73be51ad64d8c28322a47af92c92223dd489998a3c6687861c
    dc2e4d834885d03d8d3273af0bf742c47985ae8fec6d16c31216792bb0cdca0d1d1f
    a2287414cd069f8caa42dc08f78dd43e14c4095e2ef9d9609937caebcd534e813136
    e79a4233e873397a6c7fd164928d43673b32e061139dc6650152d8433e2342f59514
    9418929b74c9e23f1469ed1eebdaa57d0b5c62f90cb5a53dc68c8e030448bb2d9c07
    aeed50d82c93e1afe8febd68918933ed9b2dd36b9d8a35fd6c57cd76707011fca775
    26437aeb8392a2013f829c1e395f7f8ddef030f5bc869833f528ae2137a2e667aa64
    8d8643f6c13e8d76e8832ab9ef7d0101010101010101010101010101010194c3f0f1
    061c8f440b51f806ad822510
  input_share_1: >-
    01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
    01010101010101010101010101016195ec204fd5d65c14fac36b73723cde
  round_0:
    prep_share_0: >-
      f2dc9e823b867d760b2169644633804eabec10e5869fe8f3030c5da6dc0fce03a4
      33572cb8aaa7ca3559959f7bad68306195ec204fd5d65c14fac36b73723cde
    prep_share_1: >-
      0d23617dc479826df4de969bb9cc7fb3f5e934542e987db0271aee33551b28a4c1
      6f7ad00127c43df9c433a1c224594d94c3f0f1061c8f440b51f806ad822510
    prep_message: >-
      7912f1157c2ce3a4dca6456224aeaeea
  out_share_0:
    - 316441748434879643753815489063091297628
    - 208470253761472213750543248431791209107
    - 245951175238245845331446316072865931791
    - 133415875449384174923011884997795018199
  out_share_1:
    - 23840618486058819193050284304809468581
    - 131812113159466249196322524936109557102
    - 94331191682692617615419457295034834419
    - 206866491471554288023853888370105748010
agg_share_0: >-
  ee1076c1ebc2d48a557a71031bc9dd5c9cd5e91180bbb51f4ac366946bcbfa93b90879
  2bd15d402f4ac8da264e24a20f645ef68472180c5894bac704ae0675d7
agg_share_1: >-
  11ef893e143d2b59aa858efce43622a5632a16ee7f444ac4b53c996b9434056e46f786
  d42ea2bfb4b53725d9b1db5df39ba1097b8de7f38b6b4538fb51f98a2a
agg_result: [0, 0, 1, 0]

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 79]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

Poplar1Aes128

Sharding

bits: 4
verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
agg_param: (0, [0, 1])
upload_0:
  measurement: 13
  nonce: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
  public_share: >-
    9a000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001eb3a1bd6b5fa4a4500
    000000000000000000000000000000ffffffff0000000022522c3fd5a33cac000000
    00000000000000000000000000ffffffff0000000069f41eee46542b690000000000
    00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
    0000000000000000017d1fd6df94280145a0dcc933ceb706e9219d50e7c4f92fd8ca
    9a0ffb7d819646
  input_share_0: >-
    0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101c226
    c4542c79eafa04ece4b493baadd00114dd7a8f91b9a25b767f43733c467d2cbb7fb5
    fe9782d0a51919f2bc2b6aa57442f7b923b9a700c7ab7a6c0aaff428ee671e1ed22f
    12dbb4714b53b11f3e0354cd5709f04c6bb9b0563499a7bd94c11d6d48c24ddc68a4
    b6477c2847d8218a
  input_share_1: >-
    01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010e6b
    27437d25adc6b565aa093dcc0d27507481df2f19d80abebe750f4b0ab4b6eb20a7de
    2aebb5f610e65647225d4a1851709e3b8c95c38eccf85ffebf320fae04f6826999af
    0782036a9671411b0676717cc6a0b8fd87177836f1fd980d49e4ad23f31e83a99cea
    313c614e7106ec80

Preparation, Aggregation, and Unsharding

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 80]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

   verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
   agg_param: (0, [0, 1])
   upload_0:
     round_0:
       prep_share_0: >-
         d15f37fd8d2de10c3eec340265f8bfaa6ea7b79536b4d12a
       prep_share_1: >-
         7e02697276b506ca402eca93b7dcf770877dff591d6fd9c5
       prep_message: >-
         4f61a17103e2e7d57f1afe961dd5b71af625b6ee5424aaef
     round_1:
       prep_share_0: >-
         cba373c9458c26ee
       prep_share_1: >-
         345c8c35ba73d913
       prep_message: >-
     out_share_0:
       - 18188801410092473065
       - 309938393258542164
     out_share_1:
       - 257942659322111256
       - 18136805676156042158
   agg_share_0: >-
     fc6b9a839aaf9ae9044d1f53986e4454
   agg_share_1: >-
     0394657b65506518fbb2e0ab6791bbae
   agg_result: [0, 1]

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 81]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

   verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
   agg_param: (1, [0, 1, 2, 3])
   upload_0:
     round_0:
       prep_share_0: >-
         9b0474605d77d4791a43cb86dc332a15b8b5f67496aa4b8d
       prep_share_1: >-
         92b13576b734a956e93851d81193d503bae64c3cda971dfb
       prep_message: >-
         2db5a9d814ac7dce037c1d5fedc6ff17739c42b271416987
     round_1:
       prep_share_0: >-
         aecb3ecaafff0dbe
       prep_share_1: >-
         5134c1345000f243
       prep_message: >-
     out_share_0:
       - 16639637265869957457
       - 1807457878431656707
       - 14875784335609201424
       - 8515527061577716649
     out_share_1:
       - 1807106803544626864
       - 16639286190982927614
       - 3570959733805382897
       - 9931217007836867673
   agg_share_0: >-
     e6ebddeec787e9511915615d36666b03ce716709b74e8310762d3abecc90d3a9
   agg_share_1: >-
     19142210387816b0e6ea9ea1c99994fe318e98f548b17cf189d2c540336f2c59
   agg_result: [0, 0, 0, 1]

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 82]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

   verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
   agg_param: (2, [0, 2, 4, 6])
   upload_0:
     round_0:
       prep_share_0: >-
         93df236f6e786bca97233e32224a1941f6dd3a9511e01acc
       prep_share_1: >-
         2ab413234f2bec549b6546e4d96fee4bad6957e433768506
       prep_message: >-
         be933692bda4581e32888517fbba078ba446927a45569fd1
     round_1:
       prep_share_0: >-
         c36e1270495f5aa6
       prep_share_1: >-
         3c91ed8eb6a0a55b
       prep_message: >-
     out_share_0:
       - 3024081010823632913
       - 6306522542811675542
       - 2996392641000911092
       - 7890625214403888205
     out_share_1:
       - 15422663058590951408
       - 12140221526602908779
       - 15450351428413673229
       - 10556118855010696117
   agg_share_0: >-
     29f7b1a836259811578544d6dc487b962995533b3e7430f46d8121d38048c44d
   agg_share_1: >-
     d6084e56c9da67f0a87abb2823b7846bd66aacc3c18bcf0d927ede2b7fb73bb5
   agg_result: [0, 0, 0, 1]

verify_key: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
agg_param: (3, [1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15])
upload_0:
upload_0:
  measurement: 13
  nonce: "01010101010101010101010101010101"
  public_share: >-
    9a000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001eb3a1bd6b5fa4a4500
    000000000000000000000000000000ffffffff0000000022522c3fd5a33cac000000
    00000000000000000000000000ffffffff0000000069f41eee46542b690000000000
    00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
    0000000000000000017d1fd6df94280145a0dcc933ceb706e9219d50e7c4f92fd8ca
    9a0ffb7d819646
  input_share_0: >-
    0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101c226
    c4542c79eafa04ece4b493baadd00114dd7a8f91b9a25b767f43733c467d2cbb7fb5

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 83]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

    fe9782d0a51919f2bc2b6aa57442f7b923b9a700c7ab7a6c0aaff428ee671e1ed22f
    12dbb4714b53b11f3e0354cd5709f04c6bb9b0563499a7bd94c11d6d48c24ddc68a4
    b6477c2847d8218a
  input_share_1: >-
    01010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010e6b
    27437d25adc6b565aa093dcc0d27507481df2f19d80abebe750f4b0ab4b6eb20a7de
    2aebb5f610e65647225d4a1851709e3b8c95c38eccf85ffebf320fae04f6826999af
    0782036a9671411b0676717cc6a0b8fd87177836f1fd980d49e4ad23f31e83a99cea
    313c614e7106ec80
  round_0:
    prep_share_0: >-
      0940b06b287f0232397df2414c00cd0ccfb08f955bf4089651f019458cd7da2204
      c997d78134341745669b19da58cbef280f712d12900475ac2c4de486e9870774ba
      3c9d024245e7866528e37b9a931e61b794ab12a4bf74b41de50cec5f1214
    prep_share_1: >-
      605b876c915cb4b2d94c5999ab0642e81eefe4b06ac936b2cd9608ffeb9a6c8a45
      a9faa5b4940cdc375043075990f115770cbb762f2baf1bf9024c36685cf3051607
      a3331e036072b0202bb89be78d7ad8f8c07fbf2761884dcb4f414e966562
    prep_message: >-
      699c37d7b9dbb6e512ca4bdaf7070ff4eea07445c6bd3f491f862245787246ac4a
      73927d35c840f37cb6de2133e9bd049f1c2ca341bbb391a52e9a1aef467a0c0ac1
      dfd02045a65a3685549c178220993ab0552ad1cc20fd01e9344e3af57789
  round_1:
    prep_share_0: >-
      69ac4b4219b647d08579ebc1d61e15a87684c817b8e9e2f599dec39dd42c60e0
    prep_share_1: >-
      1653b4bde649b82f7a86143e29e1ea57897b37e847161d0a66213c622bd39f0d
    prep_message: >-
  out_share_0:
    - 31266787981623073345438631450097917412029050287225674733758559830914037991840
    - 26393661814069127500656687560668964619575440551355825110935075749282733430112
    - 29174096716912605985872100661347047626133976434476959088535854022406688824676
    - 37302603208117590782775952507020589026342905631492315271787751917771005617295
    - 55309420117672678173715719521410144937198418175813304907316032334662803449360
    - 29174390317706805594521496894406843472816744180092642437922410411508000504883
    - 21223279146307403682071881696710510174726527474394063793607036387613816968277
  out_share_1:
    - 26629256637035024366346861054246036514605942045594607285970232173042526828109
    - 31502382804588970211128804943674989307059551781464456908793716254673831389837
    - 28721947901745491725913391842996906300501015898343322931192937981549875995273
    - 20593441410540506929009539997323364900292086701327966747941040086185559202654
    - 2586624500985419538069772982933808989436574157006977112412759669293761370589
    - 28721654300951292117263995609937110453818248152727639581806381592448564315067
    - 36672765472350694029713610807633443751908464858426218226121755616342747851672
agg_share_0: >-
  45205ff6efcf67961cc100e880f3c58d5ce283585caf7fb58e09c24ba9bc49a03a5a48
  7f662ab7b240b41b6c3ac345c3754b43cbb1a5d8158e8859d1994d1560407ff41dd4ca
  cc470b3c428a61fa974d6cf9b1d14c6db9401f0e174ffce55d64527886748fe09c86af

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 84]
Internet-Draft                    VDAF                       August 2022

  d58b7e7717c47ee97309fefeda64830940348d97e3e48f7a4805bcea0d023dffa0d3cb
  1bda898326421778e72467244acb17f472a4e61040801ea8170611e914421029a53aa0
  1b494ff834cf2e01239409a37b99623c332eebf34778eee2356d44b95a1681d1f394f7
  fe66cad88d59fcb458283e84d455
agg_share_1: >-
  3adfa00910309869e33eff177f0c3a72a31d7ca7a350804a71f63db45643b64d45a5b7
  8099d5484dbf4be493c53cba3c8ab4bc344e5a27ea7177a62e66b2ea8d3f800be22b35
  33b8f4c3bd759e0568b293064e2eb39246bfe0f1e8b0031aa2892d87798b701f637950
  2a748188e83b81168cf60101259b7cf6bfcb72681c1b5e05b7fa4315f2fdc2005f2c34
  e425767cd9bde88718db98dbb534e80b8d5b19dd3f7fe157e8f9ee16ebbdefd65ac55f
  e4b6b007cb30d1fedc6bf65c84669dc3bb51140cb887111dca92bb46a5e97e2e0c6b08
  0199352772a6034ba7d7c17b2b98
agg_result: [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0]

Authors' Addresses

   Richard L. Barnes
   Cisco
   Email: rlb@ipv.sx

   Christopher Patton
   Cloudflare
   Email: chrispatton+ietf@gmail.com

   Phillipp Schoppmann
   Google
   Email: schoppmann@google.com

Barnes, et al.          Expires 25 February 2023               [Page 85]