Skip to main content

Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars
draft-taylor-uuid-ncname-04

Document Type Active Internet-Draft (individual)
Author Dorian Taylor
Last updated 2024-09-19
RFC stream (None)
Intended RFC status (None)
Formats
Stream Stream state (No stream defined)
Consensus boilerplate Unknown
RFC Editor Note (None)
IESG IESG state I-D Exists
Telechat date (None)
Responsible AD (None)
Send notices to (None)
draft-taylor-uuid-ncname-04
Network Working Group                                          D. Taylor
Internet-Draft                                               Independent
Updates: 4122 (if approved)                            19 September 2024
Intended status: Informational                                          
Expires: 23 March 2025

                 Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars
                      draft-taylor-uuid-ncname-04

Abstract

   The Universally Unique Identifier is a suitable standard for, as the
   name suggests, uniquely identifying entities in a symbol space large
   enough that the identifiers do not collide.  Many formal grammars,
   however, are too restrictive to permit the use of UUIDs in their
   canonical representation (described in RFC 4122 and elsewhere),
   despite it being useful to do so.  This document specifies an
   alternative compact representation for UUIDs that preserves some
   properties of the canonical form, with three encoding varietals, to
   fit these more restrictive contexts.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on 23 March 2025.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2024 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 1]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/
   license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document.
   Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
   and restrictions with respect to this document.

Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
     1.1.  Requirements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
     1.2.  Motivation & Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   2.  Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   3.  Strategy  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   4
   4.  Syntax  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5
     4.1.  Detection Heuristic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
     4.2.  Equivalency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
   5.  Algorithms  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
     5.1.  Encoding Algorithm  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
     5.2.  Decoding Algorithm  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   9
   6.  IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
   7.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
   8.  Normative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
   9.  Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
   Appendix A.  Samples  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  11
   Appendix B.  Implementations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  12
   Author's Address  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  13

1.  Introduction

   The formal grammar production "one or more letters or underscores
   followed by zero or more letters, digits, or underscores" (denoted by
   the regular expression /^[A-Za-z_][0-9A-Za-z_]*$/) is ubiquitous in
   computing.  It is often used for identifiers, and for good reasons.
   We may encounter some variations on this theme, like admitting
   hyphens, dots, or Unicode alphanumerics.  Some systems may impose
   additional constraints, like case-sensitivity (or the lack of it),
   explicit upper- or lower-case letters, or limits on identifier
   length.

   UUIDs are standardized 128-bit identifiers with many useful
   properties, and there are many places where it would make sense to
   use them, but their canonical representation, either with or without
   the URN prefix [RFC4122], does not conform to the constraint
   described above:

   *  UUIDs contain hyphens (and colons, in UUID URNs),

   *  UUIDs potentially start with a digit,

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 2]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   *  UUIDs are potentially too long for a given slot.

   This leads to developers creating ad-hoc, overlapping, and generally
   mutually incompatible solutions.  The goal of this specification is
   to address an ostensible need for a UUID representation that is fewer
   characters in length than the canonical form, and that always starts
   with a letter.

   This document specifies a strategy for a compact representation of
   UUIDs, with three encoding variants, as well as the related
   transformations to and from the familiar UUID format.  The proposed
   name for the general strategy is _UUID-NCName_, after the NCName
   grammar production [XML-NAMES], which is pervasive in XML and RDF
   applications.  The encodings are thus styled as _UUID-NCName-32_,
   _UUID-NCName-58_, and _UUID-NCName-64_, referring to the numerical
   base of their respective encodings.  Each encoding presents tradeoffs
   in alphabet, symbol length, and case sensitivity.

1.1.  Requirements

   The aim of this specification is to eliminate work on the part of
   developers who find themselves in the position of needing to squeeze
   UUIDs into the aforementioned grammars, by defining alternative
   representations that are:

   *  Significantly shorter lexically than the canonical UUID
      representation (even after removing the hyphens),

   *  Guaranteed to begin with with a letter (/^[A-Za-z]/),

   *  Deployable (through different encodings) in case-sensitive and
      case-insensitive contexts,

   *  Devoid of non-payload characters (i.e., every character in the
      representation is part of the UUID; except for any padding to a
      prescribed length; see Section 3),

   *  Fully isomorphic to the canonical UUID representation (i.e.,
      accommodates all possible future UUID versions and variants that
      [RFC4122] does),

   *  Amenable to detection and identification by heuristic
      (Section 4.1) (in a manner analogous to the canonical UUID
      representation).

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 3]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

1.2.  Motivation & Applications

   The purpose of an identifier in general is to pick out some
   information resource or other, such that it can be referred to,
   ideally unambiguously.  The purpose of a large, generated identifier
   like the UUID, is to satisfy the uniqueness criterion while also
   specifying a datatype and normal form for said identifiers, and
   ultimately alleviate the need to set time aside to think up names for
   things.  Why one would want to go inserting UUIDs in places they
   wouldn't otherwise fit, is so these UUIDs can be cross-referenced in
   some other database where they _do_ fit.  Consider:

   *  A programming environment that separates the task of writing logic
      from naming things, stores identifiers internally as UUID-
      NCName-32 prior to transforming them on display or export, thus
      preserving the correctness of the syntax.

   *  A component content management system that uses UUIDs to identify
      elementary content components, uses the UUID-NCName-64 (or UUID-
      NCName-58, but in this case Base64 works too and is one byte
      shorter) representations of the same UUIDs as fragment identifiers
      for when those components are transcluded.

2.  Terminology

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
   "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in BCP
   14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
   capitals, as shown here.

3.  Strategy

   Not all 128 bits of a UUID are data; rather, several bits are masked.
   The top four bits of the third segment, known as time_hi_and_version,
   specify the UUID's version, which is fixed.  Up to three high bits in
   the following segment, called clock_seq_hi_and_reserved, specify the
   variant: how the UUID — if applicable — is meant to be read.  We
   remove these masked quartets (we round up to four bits for the
   variant) and use them as "bookends" for the rest of the identifier,
   mapping them to the first sixteen symbols of the Base32 table
   [RFC4648], which are all letters.  These "bookend" characters provide
   an analogous hint to a developer of the nature of the UUID, just as
   one can by looking at the third and fourth segments of a canonical
   hexadecimal UUID representation.

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 4]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   The remaining 120 bits, which we bit-shift to close the gaps of the
   two masked quartets we removed, now divide evenly by both 5 and 6,
   the number of bits per character in Base32 and Base64, respectively.
   Base58 [Base58] encoding cannot map to an even number of bits, but we
   don't have the same concerns with regard to padding as we do with
   Base32 and Base64.  Indeed with Base58 we have a different padding
   issue: some inputs yield shorter outputs than others, so we pad the
   Base58 representation with underscore characters (_, a character
   _not_ in the Base58 alphabet) to get a consistent length.  The
   details are laid out in the encoding algorithm (Section 5.1) below.

   The transformation takes a UUID such as
   068d0f22-7ce5-4fe2-9f81-3a09af4ed880, and returns the results:

   *  ea2gq6it44x7c7aj2bgxu5weaj for Base32,

   *  EBdYYqP7vH96E8SLjJaTH_J for Base58, and

   *  EBo0PInzl_i-BOgmvTtiAJ for Base64.

   These symbols will always start and end with case-insensitive letters
   (/^[A-Za-z]/), and the entire Base32 symbol is case-insensitive.

4.  Syntax

   Here is the ABNF grammar for the productions uuid-ncname-32, uuid-
   ncname-58, and uuid-ncname-64:

   uuid-ncname-32 = bookend 24base32 bookend

   uuid-ncname-58 = bookend base58 bookend

   uuid-ncname-64 = bookend 20base64url bookend

   bookend        = %x41-50 / %x61-70 ; [A-Pa-p]

   base32         = %x32-37 / %x41-5a / %x61-7a ; [2-7A-Za-z]

   b58char        = %x31-39 / %x41-48 / %x4a-4e / %x50-5a /
                    %x61-6c / %x6d-7a ; [1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]

   base58         = 15b58char 6"_" / 16b58char 5"_" /
                    17b58char 4"_" / 18b58char 3"_" /
                    19b58char 2"_" / 20b58char "_" / 21b58char
                    ; (symbol sequence plus appropriate padding)

   base64url      = %x2d / %x30-39 / %x41-5a / %x5f / %x61-7a
                    ; [-0-9A-Z_a-z]

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 5]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   "Bookends" are 4-bit sequences (nybbles, quartets, etc.) which we map
   directly onto the Base32 table from [RFC4648].  Indeed the this
   portion of the Base64 table is identical, though we say Base32 to
   underscore the fact that bookend characters are case-insensitive.
   Certain environments encode meaning into the case of the first
   character of a symbol, so it is important that its literal
   representation be flexible.  There is likewise little value in
   arbitrarily constraining the last character.  Nevertheless, UUID-
   NCName-32 symbols SHOULD be generated entirely lower-case, while
   UUID-NCName-58 and UUID-NCName-64 symbols SHOULD be generated with
   the bookend characters in upper-case.

4.1.  Detection Heuristic

   All encodings of UUID-NCName are a fixed length:

   *  UUID-NCName-32 is always 26 bytes.

   *  UUID-NCName-58 is always 23 bytes.

   *  UUID-NCName-64 is always 22 bytes.

   All encodings likewise use the same "bookend" mechanism which always
   correspond to the first 16 symbols of Base32 (A to P, with the side
   effect that they are effectively case-insensitive).  The first and
   last character in all three representations will therefore always be
   the same, modulo case, for a given UUID.  Furthermore, since these
   "bookend" characters represent the version and variant bits, they
   will correspond to predictable values.  Version 4 (random) UUIDs, for
   instance, will always begin with E, and any UUID with its variant
   bits set as defined in RFC 4122 [RFC4122] will always terminate
   (again, modulo case) with I, J, K, or L.

   Given these facts, any UUID-NCName representation MAY be captured
   (and its "bookends" separated) using the following regular
   expression:

   /\b([A-Pa-p]) # zero-width boundary and version bookend

   ([2-7A-Za-z]{24}|[-0-9A-Z_a-z]{20}| # base32 and 64

     (?:[1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{15}_{6}|[1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{16}_{5}|
        [1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{17}_{4}|[1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{18}___|
        [1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{19}__|[1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{20}_|
        [1-9A-HJ-NP-Za-km-z]{21})) # base58 with underscore pad

   ([A-Pa-p])\b/x # variant bookend and zero-width boundary

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 6]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   The scrupulous may also wish to examine the bookend characters, for
   which the first should only correspond to the numbers 1 through 5
   (plus zero for the nil UUID) for UUID versions known at the time of
   this writing, and the other should have the same bits set as expected
   in Section 4.1.1 of RFC 4122 [RFC4122].  Note however that there is
   room in the spec for another ten UUID versions (up to a hypothetical
   version 15), and another variant bit that is currently unused.

   This detection method is considered a heuristic because it is
   possible to identify false-positive matches in random strings of
   text, just as it would be with a canonical UUID representation.  It
   is assumed that there would be sufficient enough context to
   positively identify these alternative UUID representations in the
   wild.

4.2.  Equivalency

   Two UUID-NCName symbols are necessarily identical if they convert to
   the same (canonical) UUID.  Two UUID-NCName-32 symbols are identical
   if their string values match when normalized to all upper- or lower-
   case letters.  Two UUID-NCName-58 or UUID-NCName-64 symbols are
   identical if their string values match when the "bookend" characters
   are normalized to either upper- or lower-case.

5.  Algorithms

   These are candidate algorithms for encoding and decoding the symbols,
   transforming them to and from the canonical UUID representation.
   Equivalent algorithms no doubt exist, but these are the ones used in
   the reference implementations (Appendix B).

5.1.  Encoding Algorithm

   First we apply the shifting algorithm:

   1.  Convert the UUID to a binary string bin.

   2.  Convert bin to an array of four 32-bit unsigned network-endian
       integers ints.

   3.  Extract version as (ints[1] & 0x0000f000) >> 12.

   4.  Extract variant as (ints[2] & 0xf0000000) >> 24.

   5.  Assign ints[1] = (ints[1] & 0xffff0000) | ((ints[1] & 0x00000fff)
       << 4) | ((ints[2] & 0x0fffffff) >> 24).

   6.  Assign ints[2] = (ints[2] & 0x00ffffff) << 8 | (ints[3] >> 24).

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 7]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   7.  Assign ints[3] = (ints[3] << 8) | variant.

   8.  Convert ints back into a binary string and return it along with
       the version.

   Then apply one of the formatting algorithms; here is Base32:

   1.  Take the binary string bin and shift the last octet to the right
       by one bit.

   2.  Encode bin with the Base32 algorithm to get the string b32.

   3.  Truncate b32 to 25 characters, removing any padding.

   4.  Convert version to its value in the Base32 table.

   5.  Return version concatenated to b32, optionally in either upper or
       lower case.

   And Base58:

   1.  Remove the last octet from the binary string bin, convert it to
       an integer and assign it to variant.

   2.  Shift variant to the right by 4 bits, and convert it to its value
       in the Base32 table.

   3.  Encode the remaining bin with the Base58 algorithm to get the
       string b58.

   4.  If b58 is less than 21 characters long, append underscores (_)
       until it is.

   5.  Convert version to its value in the Base32 table.

   6.  Return the concatenation of version, b58, and variant.

   And finally, Base64:

   1.  Take the binary string bin and shift the last octet to the right
       by two bits.

   2.  Encode bin with the base64url algorithm to get the string b64.

   3.  Truncate b64 to 21 characters, removing any padding.

   4.  Convert version to its value in the Base32 table.

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 8]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   5.  return version concatenated to b64.

5.2.  Decoding Algorithm

   1.  First use the detection heuristic (Section 4.1) to determine
       whether the symbol ncname is Base32, Base58, or Base64.

   2.  Remove the first character of the symbol ncname and convert it
       into an integer according to the Base32 spec; call that integer
       version.

   3.  If ncname is Base58:

       a.  Remove the last character and decode it to an integer
           according to the Base32 spec; call that integer variant.

       b.  Shift variant four bits to the left.

       c.  Remove all trailing underscores from the remainder of ncname.

       d.  Decode the remainder of ncname with the Base58 algorithm as
           bin.

       e.  Append the octet corresponding to the value of variant to
           bin.

   4.  Otherwise:

       a.  If ncname is Base64, and the last character is lowercase, set
           it to uppercase.

       b.  Append padding if necessary to satisfy the decoder, A======
           for Base32 and A== for Base64.

       c.  Decode the remainder of ncname by either the base32 or
           base64url decoding algorithm into binary string bin.

       d.  If ncname is Base32, shift the last octet of bin one bit to
           the left; if Base64 shift it two bits.

   Now we apply the shifting algorithm in reverse:

   1.   Ensure version &= 0xf so it is in the range of 0-15.

   2.   Convert the binary string bin into an array of four 32-bit
        unsigned network-endian integers ints.

   3.   Assign variant = (ints[3] & 0xf0) << 24.

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                 [Page 9]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   4.   Shift and assign ints[3] >>= 8.

   5.   Union and assign ints[3] |= ((ints[2] & 0xff) << 24).

   6.   Shift and assign ints[2] >>= 8.

   7.   Union and assign ints[2] |= ((ints[1] & 0xf) << 24) | variant.

   8.   Assign ints[1] = (ints[1] & 0xffff0000) | (version << 12) |
        ((ints[1] >> 4) & 0xfff).

   9.   Convert ints back into the new binary string bin.

   10.  Format bin as a canonical UUID.

6.  IANA Considerations

   There are no discernible IANA considerations associated with this
   specification.

7.  Security Considerations

   As UUID-NCName symbols are isomorphic to their canonical UUID
   representations, the security considerations for these symbols also
   the same as [RFC4122], though we repeat here the admonition not to
   assume that UUIDs are hard to guess.

8.  Normative References

   [Base58]   Nakamoto, S. and M. Sporny, "The Base58 Encoding Scheme",
              31 October 2020,
              <https://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-msporny-base58-02>.

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>.

   [RFC4122]  Leach, P., Mealling, M., and R. Salz, "A Universally
              Unique IDentifier (UUID) URN Namespace", RFC 4122,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC4122, July 2005,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4122>.

   [RFC4648]  Josefsson, S., "The Base16, Base32, and Base64 Data
              Encodings", RFC 4648, DOI 10.17487/RFC4648, October 2006,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4648>.

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                [Page 10]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   [RFC8174]  Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
              2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
              May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8174>.

9.  Informative References

   [XML-NAMES]
              Bray, T., Hollander, D., Layman, A., Tobin, R., and H S.
              Thompson, "Namespaces in XML 1.0 (Third Edition)", 8
              December 2009,
              <https://www.w3.org/TR/2009/REC-xml-names-20091208/>.

Appendix A.  Samples

       +===================+======================================+
       | Version           | Canonical UUID Representation        |
       +===================+======================================+
       | 0, Nil            | 00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000 |
       +===================+--------------------------------------+
       | 1, Timestamp      | ca6be4c8-cbaf-11ea-b2ab-00045a86c8a1 |
       +===================+--------------------------------------+
       | 2, DCE "Security" | 000003e8-cbb9-21ea-b201-00045a86c8a1 |
       +===================+--------------------------------------+
       | 3, MD5            | 3d813cbb-47fb-32ba-91df-831e1593ac29 |
       +===================+--------------------------------------+
       | 4, Random         | 01867b2c-a0dd-459c-98d7-89e545538d6c |
       +===================+--------------------------------------+
       | 5, SHA-1          | 21f7f8de-8051-5b89-8680-0195ef798b6a |
       +===================+--------------------------------------+

            Table 1: Samples of canonical UUID representations

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                [Page 11]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   +============+============================+========================+
   | Version    | Base32                     | Base64                 |
   +============+============================+========================+
   | 0, Nil     | aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa | AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA |
   +============+----------------------------+------------------------+
   | 1,         | bzjv6jsglv4pkfkyaarninsfbl | BymvkyMuvHqKrAARahsihL |
   | Timestamp  |                            |                        |
   +============+----------------------------+------------------------+
   | 2, DCE     | caaaah2glxepkeaiaarninsfbl | CAAAD6Mu5HqIBAARahsihL |
   | "Security" |                            |                        |
   +============+----------------------------+------------------------+
   | 3, MD5     | dhwatzo2h7mv2dx4ddykzhlbjj | DPYE8u0f7K6Hfgx4Vk6wpJ |
   +============+----------------------------+------------------------+
   | 4, Random  | eagdhwlfa3vm4rv4j4vcvhdlmj | EAYZ7LKDdWcjXieVFU41sJ |
   +============+----------------------------+------------------------+
   | 5, SHA-1   | feh37rxuakg4jnaabsxxxtc3ki | FIff43oBRuJaAAZXveYtqI |
   +============+----------------------------+------------------------+

          Table 2: Samples of UUID-NCName-32 and UUID-NCName-64
                             representations

              +===================+=========================+
              | Version           | Base58                  |
              +===================+=========================+
              | 0, Nil            | A111111111111111______A |
              +===================+-------------------------+
              | 1, Timestamp      | B6fTkmTD22KpWbDq1LuiszL |
              +===================+-------------------------+
              | 2, DCE "Security" | C11KtP6Y9P3rRkvh2N1e__L |
              +===================+-------------------------+
              | 3, MD5            | D2ioV6oTr9yq6dMojd469nJ |
              +===================+-------------------------+
              | 4, Random         | E3UZ99RxxUJC1v4dWsYtb_J |
              +===================+-------------------------+
              | 5, SHA-1          | Fx7wEJfz9eb1TYzsrT7Zs_I |
              +===================+-------------------------+

                     Table 3: Samples of UUID-NCName-58
                              representations

Appendix B.  Implementations

   As of this writing, there are three implementations of UUID-NCName:

   *  Perl, https://metacpan.org/pod/Data::UUID::NCName

   *  Ruby, https://rubygems.org/gems/uuid-ncname

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                [Page 12]
Internet-Draft   Compact UUIDs for Constrained Grammars   September 2024

   *  Java, by Werner Randelshofer https://github.com/wrandelshofer/
      UuidNCName

Author's Address

   Dorian Taylor
   Independent
   Email: ietf@doriantaylor.com
   URI:   https://doriantaylor.com/

Taylor                    Expires 23 March 2025                [Page 13]