Network Working Group                                           F. Baker
Internet-Draft                                             Cisco Systems
Intended status: Informational                           October 3, 2009
Expires: April 6, 2010


             Core Protocols in the Internet Protocol Suite
                        draft-baker-ietf-core-03

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   Copyright (c) 2009 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
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Abstract

   This note attempts to identify the core of the Internet Protocol
   Suite.  The target audience is NIST, in the Smart Grid discussion, as
   they have requested guidance on how to profile the Internet Protocol



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   Suite.  In general, that would mean selecting what they need from the
   picture presented here.


Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
   2.  The Internet Protocol Suite  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5
     2.1.  Internet Protocol Layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5
       2.1.1.  Application  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  5
       2.1.2.  Transport  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
       2.1.3.  Network  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
         2.1.3.1.  Internet Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
         2.1.3.2.  Lower layer networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
       2.1.4.  Physical and Link layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
     2.2.  Security issues  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
       2.2.1.  Physical security  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  7
       2.2.2.  Session identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  8
       2.2.3.  Confidentiality  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9
     2.3.  Network Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9
       2.3.1.  Domain Name System (DNS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  9
       2.3.2.  Network Management Issues  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
   3.  Specific protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
     3.1.  Security solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
       3.1.1.  Session identification, authentication,
               authorization, and accounting  . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
       3.1.2.  IP Security Architecture (IPsec) . . . . . . . . . . . 11
       3.1.3.  Transport Layer Security (TLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
       3.1.4.  Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
               (S/MIME) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
     3.2.  Network Layer  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
       3.2.1.  Internet Protocol Version 4  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
         3.2.1.1.  IPv4 Address Allocation and Assignment . . . . . . 12
         3.2.1.2.  IPv4 Unicast Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
         3.2.1.3.  IPv4 Multicast Forwarding and Routing  . . . . . . 13
       3.2.2.  Internet Protocol Version 6  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
         3.2.2.1.  IPv6 Address Allocation and Assignment . . . . . . 13
         3.2.2.2.  IPv6 Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
         3.2.2.3.  IPv6 Multicast Forwarding and Routing  . . . . . . 14
       3.2.3.  Adaptation to lower layer networks and link layer
               protocols  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
     3.3.  Transport Layer  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
       3.3.1.  User Datagram Protocol (UDP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
       3.3.2.  Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)  . . . . . . . . . 16
       3.3.3.  Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)  . . . . . 16
       3.3.4.  Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)  . . . . . 17
     3.4.  Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
       3.4.1.  Domain Name System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17



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       3.4.2.  Dynamic Host Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
       3.4.3.  Network Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
       3.4.4.  Session Initiation Protocol  . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
   4.  A simplied view of the business architecture . . . . . . . . . 18
   5.  IANA Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   6.  Security Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   7.  Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
   8.  References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
     8.1.  Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
     8.2.  Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
   Author's Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32








































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1.  Introduction

   In the discussion of the Smart Grid, a question has arisen as to what
   the "core" protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite are.  In this
   note, I will attempt to identify the structure of the Internet
   Protocol Suite and the key protocols that should be considered as
   critical in integrating Smart Grid devices into an IP-based
   infrastructure.  In many cases, the protocols are options - one might
   choose, for example, TCP, SCTP, DCCP, or some other transport, or use
   UDP as a label and build the transport into the application itself.
   In the Transport layer, therefore, one is not limited to exactly one
   of those, nor is one required to implement them all.  One should,
   however, pick the right one for the purpose one intends.  This kind
   of discussion will be had at every layer.

   The set of protocols defined in this document focus on the use of the
   IP Protocol Suite in end systems, also known as hosts.  In the Smart
   Grid, these end systems will be various devices such as power meters,
   sensors and actuators.  These end systems can leverage infrastructure
   built on networking components using the IP Protocol Suite, which
   have well-proven implementations and deployments in the Internet.

   IETF participants in the Smart Grid discussion have been wary of the
   desire to write a "profile", repeatedly expressed.  The IETF is all
   about interoperability, and in our experience attempts to "profile"
   protocols and architectures has resulted in a failure to
   interoperate.  Examples of such failures abound.  In IETF experience,
   writing a conforming and interoperable implementation of the right
   set of protocols works.  Selecting some options and deselecting
   others within a defined protocol, however, is a dangerous course of
   action.  So while this document is clearly a step in the direction of
   writing a "Smart Grid Profile", such a profile should in our opinion
   be a selected set of protocols, not of protocol subsets.

   For its own purposes, the IETF has written several documents that
   describe its expectations regarding implementations of the Internet
   Protocol Suite.  These include:

   o  Requirements for Internet Hosts - Communication Layers [RFC1122],

   o  Requirements for Internet Hosts - Application and Support
      [RFC1123],

   o  Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers [RFC1812], and

   o  IPv6 Node Requirements [RFC4294],

   At this writing, RFC 4294 is in the process of being updated, in



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   [I-D.ietf-6man-node-req-bis].

   This document will read like an annotated list of RFCs.  That is
   because that is what it is.


2.  The Internet Protocol Suite

   Before listing a list of protocols, it would be well to lay out how
   they relate to each other.  In this section, we will discuss the
   layered architecture of the Internet Protocol Suite and the jobs of
   the various layers and their protocols.

2.1.  Internet Protocol Layers

   The Internet Architecture uses the definitions and language of the
   ISO Open System Interconnect Reference Model, as shown in Figure 1.
   It actually predates that model, and as a result uses some different
   words - an "end system" is generally called a "host", and an
   "intermediate system" is more generally called an "internet gateway"
   or "router".  But the fundamental concepts are essentially the same.

                           +--------------------+
                           | Application Layer  |
                           +--------------------+
                           | Presentation Layer |
                           +--------------------+
                           | Session Layer      |
                           +--------------------+
                           | Transport layer    |
                           +--------------------+
                           | Network Layer      |
                           +--------------------+
                           | Data Link Layer    |
                           +--------------------+
                           | Physical Layer     |
                           +--------------------+

                   Figure 1: The ISO OSI Reference Model

2.1.1.  Application

   In implementation, the Application, Presentation, and Session layers
   are generally compressed into a single entity, which the IETF calls
   "the application".  The SNMP protocol, for example, describes an
   application (a management application or a client that it
   communicates with) that encodes its data in a profile of ASN.1 (a
   presentation layer) and engages in a session to manage a network



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   element.  In the Internet, therefore, the distinction between these
   layers exists but is not generally highlighted.

2.1.2.  Transport

   The term "transport" is perhaps among the most confusing words in the
   communication architecture, because people with various backgrounds
   use it to refer to "the layer below that which I am interested in,
   which gets my data to my peer".  In these contexts, optical fiber and
   other physical layers, the Internet Protocol or other networked
   protocols, and in some cases application layer protocols like HTTP
   are referred to as "the transport".

   In the Internet context, the "transport" is the lowest layer that
   travels end-to-end unmodified, and is responsible for end-to-end data
   delivery services.  At minimum these include the ability to multiplex
   several applications on one IP address, and may also include the
   delivery of data (either as a stream of messages or a stream of
   bytes) in a stated sequence with stated expectations regarding
   delivery rate and loss.  TCP, for example, will reduce rate to avoid
   loss, while DCCP accepts some level of loss if necessary to maintain
   timeliness.

2.1.3.  Network

   The network layer is nominally that which identifies a remote
   destination and gets data to it.  In connection-oriented networking,
   such as MPLS or ATM, a path (one of many "little tubes") is set up
   once, and data is delivered through it.  In connectionless
   ("datagram") networks, which include Ethernet and IP among others,
   each datagram contains the addresses of both the source and
   destination devices, and the network is responsible to deliver it.

2.1.3.1.  Internet Layer

   IPv4 and IPv6, each of which is called the Internet Protocol, are
   connectionless ("datagram") architectures.  They are designed as
   common elements that interconnect network elements across a network
   of lower layer networks.  In addition to the basic service of
   identifying a datagram's source and destination, they offer services
   to fragment and reassemble datagrams when necessary, assist in
   diagnosis of network failures, and carry additional information
   necessary in special cases.

   The Internet Layer provides a uniform network abstraction or virtual
   network that hides the differences between different network
   technologies.  This is the layer that allows diverse networks such as
   Ethernet, 802.15.4, etc. to be combined into a uniform IP network.



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   New network technologies can be introduced into the IP Protocol Suite
   by defining how IP is carried over those technologies, leaving the
   other layers of the IP Protocol Suite and applications that use those
   protocol unchanged.

2.1.3.2.  Lower layer networks

   The network layer is recursively subdivided as needed.  For various
   reasons, IP may be carried in virtual private networks across more
   public networks using tunneling technologies like IP-in-IP or GRE,
   traffic engineered in circuit networks such as MPLS, GMPLS, or ATM,
   and distributed across local wireless (IEEE 802.11, 802.15.4, or
   802.16) and switched Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).

2.1.4.  Physical and Link layers

   At the lowest layer of the architecture, we encode digital data in
   messages onto appropriate physical media.  While the IETF specifies
   algorithms for carrying IPv4 and IPv6 on such media, it rarely
   actually defines the media - it happily uses specifications from
   IEEE, ITU, and other sources.

2.2.  Security issues

   It is popular to complain about the security of the Internet; that
   said, solutions exist but are often left unused.  As with automobile
   seat belts, they are of more value when actively used.  Security
   designs attempt to mitigate a set of known threats at a specified
   cost; addressing security issues requires first a threat analysis and
   assessment and a set of mitigations appropriate to the threats.
   Since we have threats at every layer, we should expect to find
   mitigations at every layer.

2.2.1.  Physical security

   At the physical and data link layers, threats involve physical
   attacks on the network - the effects of backhoes, deterioration of
   physical media, and various kinds of environmental noise.  Radio-
   based networks are subject to signal fade due to distance,
   interference, and environmental factors; it is widely noted that IEEE
   802.15.4 networks frequently place a metal ground plate between the
   meter and the device that manages it.  Fiber was at one time deployed
   because it was believed to be untappable; we have since learned to
   tap it by bending the fiber and collecting incidental light, and we
   have learned about backhoes.  So now some installations encase fiber
   optic cable in a pressurized sheath, both to quickly identify the
   location of a cut and to make it more difficult to tap.




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   While there are protocol behaviors that can detect certain classes of
   physical faults, such as keep-alive exchanges, physical security is
   generally not a protocol problem.

2.2.2.  Session identification

   At the transport and application layers, and in lower layer networks
   where dynamic connectivity like ATM SVCs or "dial" connectivity is in
   use, there tend to be several different classes of authentication/
   authorization requirements.  One must

   1.  Verify that the peers one exchanges data with are appropriate
       partners; this generally means knowing "who" they are and that
       they have a "need to know" or are trusted sources.

   2.  Verify that information that appears to be from a trusted peer is
       in fact from that peer.

   3.  Validate the content of the data exchanged; it must conform to
       the rules of the exchange.

   4.  One must also defend the channel against denial of service
       attacks.

   In other words, there is a need to secure the channel that carries a
   message, and there is a need to secure the exchanges, both by knowing
   the source of the information and to have proof of its validity.
   Three examples suffice to illustrate the challenges.

   One common attack is to bombard a transport session (an application's
   channel) with reset messages.  If the attacker is lucky, he might
   cause the session to fail.  Including information in the transport
   header or a related protocol like IPsec or TLS that identifies the
   right messages and facilitates speedy discard of the rest can
   mitigate this.

   Another common attack involves unauthorized communication with a
   router or a service.  For example, an unauthorized party might try to
   join the routing system.  One wants the ISP's router, before
   accepting routing information from a new peer, to

   o  demand identification from the new peer,

   o  verify that the peer is in fact who it claims to be, and

   o  verify that it is authorized to carry on the exchange.

   More generally, in securing the channel, one wants to verify that



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   messages putatively received from a peer were in fact received from
   the peer, and given that they are, to only carry on transactions with
   peers that one trusts.  This is analogous to how one responds to a
   salesman at the front door - one asks who the salesman represents,
   seeks a credential as proof, and then asks one self whether one wants
   to deal with that company.  Only if all indications are positive does
   one carry on a transaction.

   Unfortunately, even trusted peers can be the purveyors of incorrect
   or malicious content; having secured the channel, one also wants to
   secure the information exchanged through the channel.  In electronic
   mail and other database exchanges, it may be necessary to be able to
   verify the identity of the sender and the correctness of the content
   long after the information exchange has occurred - for example, if a
   contract is exchanged that is secured by digital signatures, one will
   wish to be able to verify those signatures at least throughout the
   lifetime of the contract, and probably a long time after that.

   The third "A" in "AAA" is Accounting.  This service is especially
   important for Internet Service Providers; the related service of
   auditing is important for enterprises.  RADIUS and DIAMETER are
   commonly used to realize these services.

2.2.3.  Confidentiality

   At several layers, there is a question of confidentiality.  If one is
   putting one's credit card in a transaction, one wants application
   layer privacy, which might be supplied by an encrypting application
   or transport layer protocol.  If one is trying to hide one's network
   structure, one might additionally want to encrypt the network layer
   header.

2.3.  Network Infrastructure

   While these are not critical to the design of a specific system, they
   are important to running a network.  We therefore bring them up.

2.3.1.  Domain Name System (DNS)

   While not critical to running a network, certain functions are made a
   lot easier if numeric addresses can be replaced with mnemonic names.
   This facilitates renumbering of networks, which happens, and
   generally improves the manageability and serviceability of the
   network.  DNS has a set of security extensions called DNSSEC, which
   can be used to provide strong cryptographic authentication to that
   protocol.





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2.3.2.  Network Management Issues

   Network management has proven to be a difficult problem; there are
   many solutions, and each has proponents with solid arguments for
   their viewpoint.  In the IETF, we have two major network management
   solutions for device operation: SNMP, which is ASN.1-encoded and is
   primarily used for monitoring of system variables in a polled
   architecture, and NetConf, which is XML-encoded and primarily used
   for device configuration.

   Another aspect of network management is the initial provisioning and
   configuration of hosts.  Address assignment and other configuration
   is discussed in Section 3.4.2.  Smart Grid deployments will require
   additional identity authentication and authorization as well as other
   provisioning and configuration that may not be within the scope of
   DHCP and Neighbor Discovery.  While the IP Protocol Suite does not
   have specific solutions for secure provisioning and configuration,
   these problems have been solved using IP protocols in specifications
   such as DOCSIS 3.0 [SP-MULPIv3.0].


3.  Specific protocols

   In this section, having briefly laid out the architecture and some of
   the problems that the architecture tries to address, we introduce
   specific protocols that might be appropriate to various use cases.
   In each place, the options are in the protocols used - one wants to
   select the right privacy, AAA, transport, and network solutions in
   each case.

3.1.  Security solutions

   As noted, a key consideration in security solutions is a good threat
   analysis coupled with appropriate mitigations at each layer.

3.1.1.  Session identification, authentication, authorization, and
        accounting

   In the Internet Protocol Suite there are several approaches to AAA
   issues; generally, one chooses one of them for a purpose.  As they
   have different attack surfaces and protection domains, they require
   some thought in application.  Two important ones are the IP Security
   Architecture, which protects IP datagrams, and Transport Layer
   Security, which protects the information that the Transport delivers.







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3.1.2.  IP Security Architecture (IPsec)

   The Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol [RFC4301] is a
   set of control and data protocols that are implemented between IPv4
   and its Transport layer, or in IPv6's Security extension header.  It
   allows transport layer sessions (which underlie applications) to
   communicate in a way that is designed to prevent eavesdropping,
   tampering, or message forgery.  The architecture is spelled out in a
   number of additional specifications for specific components: the
   Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) [RFC4303], the Internet Security
   Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) [RFC4304], Internet
   Key Exchange (IKEv2) [RFC4306], Cryptographic Algorithms [RFC4307],
   and the use of Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) [RFC4309].

   In the transport mode, IPsec ESP encrypts the transport layer and the
   application data.  In the tunnel mode, which is frequently used for
   Virtual Private Networks, one also encrypts the Internet Protocol,
   and encapsulates the encrypted data inside a second IP header
   directed to the intended decryptor.

3.1.3.  Transport Layer Security (TLS)

   Transport Layer Security [RFC5246] and Datagram Transport Layer
   Security [RFC4347][I-D.ietf-tls-rfc4347-bis] are mechanisms that
   travel within the transport layer PDU, meaning that they readily
   traverse network address translators and secure the information
   exchanges without securing the datagrams exchanged or the transport
   layer itself.  Each allows client/server applications to communicate
   in a way that is designed to prevent eavesdropping, tampering, or
   message forgery.

3.1.4.  Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME)

   The S/MIME [RFC2045] [RFC2046] [RFC2047] [RFC4289] [RFC2049]
   [RFC3850] [RFC3853] [RFC4262] specification was originally specified
   as an extension to SMTP Mail to provide evidence that the putative
   sender of an email message in fact sent it, and that the content
   received was in fact the content that was sent.  As its name
   suggests, by extension this is a way of securing any object that can
   be exchanged, by any means, and has become one of the most common
   ways to secure an object.

   Other approaches also exist, such as the use of digital signatures on
   XML-encoded files, as jointly standardized by W3C and the IETF
   [RFC3275].






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3.2.  Network Layer

   Here we mention both IPv4 and IPv6.  The reader is warned: IPv4 is
   running out of address space, and IPv6 has positive reasons that one
   might choose it apart from the IPv6 space such as the address
   autoconfiguration facility and its ability to support an arbitrarily
   large number of hosts in a subnet.  As such, the IETF recommends that
   one always choose IPv6 support, and additionally choose IPv4 support
   in the near term.

3.2.1.  Internet Protocol Version 4

   IPv4 [RFC0791], with the Internet Control Message Protocol [RFC0792],
   constitutes the traditional protocol implemented throughout the
   Internet.  IPv4 provides for transmission of datagrams from source to
   destination hosts, which are identified by fixed length addresses.

   IPv4 also provides for fragmentation and reassembly of long
   datagrams, if necessary, for transmission through "small packet"
   networks.  ICMP, which is a separate protocol implemented along with
   IPv4, enables the network to report errors and other issues to hosts
   that originate problematic datagrams.

3.2.1.1.  IPv4 Address Allocation and Assignment

   IPv4 addresses are administratively assigned, usually using automated
   methods, and assigned using the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
   (DHCP) [RFC2131].  On most interface types, neighboring equipment
   identify each other's addresses using Address Resolution Protocol
   (ARP) [RFC0826].

3.2.1.2.  IPv4 Unicast Routing

   Routing for the IPv4 Internet is done by routing applications that
   exchange connectivity information and build semi-static destination
   routing databases.  If a datagram is directed to a given destination
   address, the address is looked up in the routing database, and the
   most specific ("longest") prefix found that contains it is used to
   identify the next hop router, or the end system it will be delivered
   to.  This is not generally implemented on hosts, although it can be;
   generally, a host sends datagrams to a router on its local network,
   and the router carries out the intent.

   IETF specified routing protocols include RIP Version 2 [RFC2453], OSI
   IS-IS for IPv4 [RFC1195], OSPF Version 2 [RFC2328], and BGP-4
   [RFC4271].  Active research exists in mobile ad hoc routing and other
   routing paradigms; these result in new protocols and modified
   forwarding paradigms.



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3.2.1.3.  IPv4 Multicast Forwarding and Routing

   IPv4 was originally specified as a unicast (point to point) protocol,
   and was extended to support multicast in [RFC1112].  This uses the
   Internet Group Management Protocol [RFC3376][RFC4604] to enable
   applications to join multicast groups, and for most applications uses
   Source-Specific Multicast [RFC4607] for routing and delivery of
   multicast messages.

   An experiment carried out in IPv4 that is not core to the
   architecture but may be of interest in the Smart Grid is the
   development of so-called "Reliable Multicast".  This is "so-called"
   because it is not "reliable" in the strict sense of the word - it is
   perhaps better described as "enhanced reliability".  A best effort
   network by definition can lose traffic, duplicate it, or reorder it,
   something as true for multicast as for unicast.  Research in
   "Reliable Multicast" technology intends to improve the probability of
   delivery of multicast traffic.

   In that research, the IETF imposed guidelines [RFC2357] on the
   research community regarding what was desirable.  Important results
   from that research include a number of papers and several proprietary
   protocols including some that have been used in support of business
   operations.  RFCs in the area include The Use of Forward Error
   Correction (FEC) in Reliable Multicast [RFC3453], the Negative-
   acknowledgment (NACK)-Oriented Reliable Multicast (NORM) Protocol
   [RFC3940], and the Selectively Reliable Multicast Protocol (SRMP)
   [RFC4410].  These are considered experimental.

3.2.2.  Internet Protocol Version 6

   IPv6 [RFC2460], with the Internet Control Message Protocol "v6"
   [RFC4443], constitutes the next generation protocol for the Internet.
   IPv6 provides for transmission of datagrams from source to
   destination hosts, which are identified by fixed length addresses.

   IPv6 also provides for fragmentation and reassembly of long datagrams
   by the originating host, if necessary, for transmission through
   "small packet" networks.  ICMPv6, which is a separate protocol
   implemented along with IPv6, enables the network to report errors and
   other issues to hosts that originate problematic datagrams.

3.2.2.1.  IPv6 Address Allocation and Assignment

   An IPv6 Address [RFC4291] may be administratively assigned using
   DHCPv6 [RFC3315] in a manner similar to the way IPv4 addresses are,
   but may also be autoconfigured, facilitating network management.
   Autoconfiguration procedures are defined in [RFC4862] and [RFC4941].



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   IPv6 neighbors identify each other's addresses using either Neighbor
   Discovery (ND) [RFC4861] or SEcure Neighbor Discovery (SEND)
   [RFC3971].

3.2.2.2.  IPv6 Routing

   Routing for the IPv6 Internet is done by routing applications that
   exchange connectivity information and build semi-static destination
   routing databases.  If a datagram is directed to a given destination
   address, the address is looked up in the routing database, and the
   most specific ("longest") prefix found that contains it is used to
   identify the next hop router, or the end system it will be delivered
   to.  This is not generally implemented on hosts, although it can be;
   generally, a host sends datagrams to a router on its local network,
   and the router carries out the intent.

   IETF specified routing protocols include RIP for IPv6 [RFC2080],
   IS-IS for IPv6 [RFC5308], OSPF for IPv6 [RFC5340], and BGP-4 for IPv6
   [RFC2545].  Active research exists in mobile ad hoc routing, routing
   in low power networks (sensors and smart grids) and other routing
   paradigms; these result in new protocols and modified forwarding
   paradigms.

3.2.2.3.  IPv6 Multicast Forwarding and Routing

   From its initial design, IPv6 has specified both unicast and
   multicast datagram exchange.  This uses the Multicast Listener
   Discovery Protocol (MLDv2) [RFC2710] [RFC3590] [RFC3810] [RFC4604] to
   enable applications to join multicast groups, and for most
   applications uses Source-Specific Multicast [RFC4607] for routing and
   delivery of multicast messages.

   The IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks [RFC4919] RFC
   addresses IPv6 header compression and subnet architecture in at least
   some sensor networks, and may be appropriate to the Smart Grid AMI or
   other sensor domains.

   The mechanisms experimentally developed for reliable multicast in
   IPv4, discussed in Section 3.2.1.3, can be used in IPv6 as well.

3.2.3.  Adaptation to lower layer networks and link layer protocols

   In general, the layered architecture enables the Internet Protocol
   Suite to run over any appropriate layer 2 architecture; with tongue
   in cheek, specifications have been written and demonstrated to work
   for the carriage of IP by Carrier Pigeon [RFC1149][RFC2549] (perhaps
   the most common carrier known to man) and on barbed wire [Chapman].
   The ability to change the link or physical layer without having to



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   rethink the network layer, transports, or applications has been a
   great benefit in the Internet.

   Examples of link layer adaptation technology include:

   Ethernet/IEEE 802.3:  IPv4 has run on each link layer environment
      that uses the Ethernet header (which is to say 10 and 100 MBPS
      wired Ethernet, 1 and 10 GBPS wired Ethernet, and the various
      versions of IEEE 802.11) using [RFC0894].  IPv6 does the same
      using [RFC2464].

   PPP:  The IETF has defined a serial line protocol, the Point-to-Point
      Protocol (PPP) [RFC1661], that uses HDLC (bit-synchronous or byte
      synchronous) framing.  The IPv4 adaptation specification is
      [RFC1332], and the IPv6 adaptation specification is [RFC5072].
      Current use of this protocol is in traditional serial lines,
      authentication exchanges in DSL networks using PPP Over Ethernet
      (PPPoE) [RFC2516], and in the Digital Signaling Hierarchy
      (generally referred to as Packet-on-SONET/SDH) using PPP over
      SONET/SDH [RFC2615].

   IEEE 802.15.4:  The adaptation specification for IPv6 transmission
      over IEEE 802.15.4 Networks is [RFC4944].

   Numerous other adaptation specifications exist, including ATM, Frame
   Relay, X.25, other standardized and proprietary LAN technologies, and
   others.

3.3.  Transport Layer

   In this we list several transports: UDP, TCP, SCTP, and DCCP.  Of
   these, UDP and TCP are best known and most widely used, due to
   history.  SCTP and DCCP were built for specific purposes more
   recently and bear consideration at least for those purposes.

   Note that if it is appropriate, other transports can also be built.
   This is largely a question of requirements.

3.3.1.  User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

   The User Datagram Protocol [RFC0768] and the Lightweight User
   Datagram Protocol [RFC3828] are properly not "transport" protocols in
   the sense of "a set of rules governing the exchange or transmission
   of data electronically between devices".  They are labels that
   provide for multiplexing of applications directly on the IP layer,
   with transport functionality embedded in the application.

   From a historical perspective, one should note that many simplistic



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   exchange designs have been built using UDP, and many of them have not
   worked all that well.  The use of UDP really should be treated as
   designing a new transport.  More generally, advice on the use of UDP
   in new applications has been compiled in the Unicast UDP Usage
   Guidelines for Application Designers [RFC5405].

   Datagram Transport Layer Security [RFC5238] can be used to prevent
   eavesdropping, tampering, or message forgery.  Alternatively, UDP can
   run over IPsec.

3.3.2.  Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

   TCP [RFC0793] is the predominant transport protocol in use in the
   Internet, with a long history.  It is "reliable", as the term is used
   in protocol design: it delivers data to its peer and provides
   acknowledgement to the sender, or it dies trying.  It has extensions
   for Congestion Control [RFC2581] and Explicit Congestion Notification
   [RFC3168].

   The user interface for TCP is a byte stream interface - an
   application using TCP might "write" to it several times only to have
   the data compacted into a common segment and delivered as such to its
   peer.  For message-stream interfaces, we generally use the ISO
   Transport Service on TCP [RFC1006][RFC2126] in the application.

   Transport Layer Security [RFC5246] can be used to prevent
   eavesdropping, tampering, or message forgery.  Alternatively, TCP can
   run over IPsec.  Additionally, [RFC4987] discusses mechanisms similar
   to SCTP and DCCP's "cookie" approach that may be used to secure TCP
   sessions against flooding attacks.

   TCP has supported ongoing research since it was written.  As a
   result, the End to End research group has published a Roadmap for TCP
   Specification Documents [RFC4614] which will guide expectations in
   that area.

3.3.3.  Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

   SCTP [RFC4960] is a more recent reliable transport protocol that can
   be imagined as a TCP-like context containing multiple separate and
   independent message streams (as opposed to TCP's byte streams).  The
   design of SCTP includes appropriate congestion avoidance behavior and
   resistance to flooding and masquerade attacks.  As it uses a message
   stream interface as opposed to TCP's byte stream interface, it may
   also be more appropriate for the ISO Transport Service than RFC 1006/
   2126.

   SCTP offers several delivery options.  The basic service is



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   sequential non-duplicated delivery of messages within a stream, for
   each stream in use.  Since streams are independent, one stream may
   pause due to head of line blocking while another stream in the same
   session continues to deliver data.  In addition, SCTP provides a
   mechanism for bypassing the sequenced delivery service.  User
   messages sent using this mechanism are delivered to the SCTP user as
   soon as they are received.

   SCTP implements a simple "cookie" mechanism intended to limit the
   effectiveness of flooding attacks by mutual authentication.  This
   demonstrates that the application is connected to the same peer, but
   does not identify the peer.  Mechanisms also exist for Dynamic
   Address Reconfiguration [RFC5061], enabling peers to change addresses
   during the session and yet retain connectivity.  Transport Layer
   Security [RFC3436] can be used to prevent eavesdropping, tampering,
   or message forgery.  Alternatively, SCTP can run over IPsec.

3.3.4.  Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)

   DCCP [RFC4340] is an "unreliable" transport protocol (e.g., one that
   does not guarantee message delivery) that provides bidirectional
   unicast connections of congestion-controlled unreliable datagrams.
   DCCP is suitable for applications that transfer fairly large amounts
   of data and that can benefit from control over the tradeoff between
   timeliness and reliability.

   DCCP implements a simple "cookie" mechanism intended to limit the
   effectiveness of flooding attacks by mutual authentication.  This
   demonstrates that the application is connected to the same peer, but
   does not identify the peer.  Datagram Transport Layer Security
   [RFC5238] can be used to prevent eavesdropping, tampering, or message
   forgery.  Alternatively, DCCP can run over IPsec.

3.4.  Infrastructure

3.4.1.  Domain Name System

   To facilitate network management and operations, the Internet
   Community has defined the Domain Name System (DNS)
   [RFC1034][RFC1035].  Names are hierarchical: a name like example.com
   is found registered with a .com registrar, and within the associated
   network other names like baldur.cincinatti.example.com can be
   defined, with obvious hierarchy.  Security extensions, which all a
   registry to sign the records it contains and as a result demonstrate
   their authenticity, are defined by the DNS Security Extensions
   [RFC4033][RFC4034][RFC4035].

   Similarly unrequired but useful is the ability for a device to update



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   its own DNS record.  One could imagine a sensor, for example, that is
   using Stateless Address Autoconfiguration [RFC4862] to create an
   address to associate it with a name using DNS Dynamic Update
   [RFC2136] or DNS Secure Dynamic Update [RFC3007].

3.4.2.  Dynamic Host Configuration

   As discussed in Section 3.2.1 and Section 3.2.2, IPv6 address
   assignment can be accomplished using autoconfiguration but can also
   be accomplished using DHCP [RFC2131] or DHCPv6 [RFC3315].  The best
   argument for the use of autoconfiguration is a large number of
   systems that require little more than a random number as an address;
   the argument for DHCP is administrative control.

   There are other parameters that may need to be allocated to hosts,
   and these do require administrative configuration; examples include
   the address of one's DNS server, keys if Secure DNS is in use, and
   others.

3.4.3.  Network Time

   The Network Time Protocol was originally designed by Dave Mills of
   the University of Delaware and CSNET, for the purpose of implementing
   a temporal metric in the Fuzzball Routing Protocol and generally
   coordinating time experiments.  The current versions of the time
   protocol are the Network Time Protocol [RFC1305], which is designed
   for synchronization to within a few microseconds, and the Simple
   Network Time Protocol [RFC4330] which is used to set real time clocks
   to within a few milliseconds.  The former is more precise, but relies
   on frequent exchanges; the latter is less precise and lower overhead.

   NTP is currently being updated in [I-D.ietf-ntp-ntpv4-proto].

3.4.4.  Session Initiation Protocol

   The Session Initiation Protocol
   [RFC3261][RFC3265][RFC3853][RFC4320][RFC4916][RFC5393][RFC5621] was
   originally developed to manage Voice-on-IP and Video-on-IP sessions
   on the Internet, as an open source alternative to H.323.  Via
   extensions, it is generally used for session setup for a variety of
   purposes and for very quick management exchanges.


4.  A simplied view of the business architecture

   The Internet was originally structured in such a way that any host
   could directly connect to any other host for which it could determine
   an IP address.  That was very quickly found to have issues, and folks



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   found ways to change that.  To understand the implications, one must
   understand, at a high level, the business structure of the Internet.

   The Internet, whose name implies that it is a network of networks,
   may be understood as a number of interconnected businesses.  Central
   to its business structure are the networks that provide connectivity
   to other networks, called "Transit Providers".  These networks sell
   bulk bandwidth to each other, and to other networks as customers.
   Around the periphery of these networks, one finds companies, schools,
   and other networks that provide services directly to individuals.
   These might generally be divided into "Enterprise Networks" and
   "Access Networks"; Enterprise networks provide "free" connectivity to
   their own employees or members, and also provide them a set of
   services including electronic mail, web services, and so on.  Access
   Networks sell broadband connectivity (DSL, Cable Modem, 802.11
   wireless or 3GPP wireless), or "dial" services including PSTN dial-up
   and ISDN, to subscribers.  The subscribers are typically either
   residential or small office/home office (SOHO) customers.
   Residential customers are generally entirely dependent on their
   access provider for all services, while a SOHO buys some services
   from the access provider and may provide others for itself.  Networks
   that sell transit services to nobody else - SOHO, residential, and
   enterprise networks - are generally refereed to as "edge networks";
   Transit Networks are considered to be part of the "core" of the
   Internet, and access networks are between the two.  This general
   structure is depicted in Figure 2.

                           ------                  ------
                          /      \                /      \
                /--\     /        \              /        \
               |SOHO|---+  Access  |            |Enterprise|
                \--/    |  Service |            | Network  |
                /--\    |  Provider|            |          |
               |Home|---+          |   ------   |          |
                \--/     \        +---+      +---+        /
                          \      /   /        \   \      /
                           ------   | Transit  |   ------
                                    | Service  |
                                    | Provider |
                                    |          |
                                     \        /
                                      \      /
                                       ------

             Figure 2: Conceptual model of Internet businesses

   A specific example is shown in a traceroute from the author's home to
   a school he can see nearby.  Internet connectivity in Figure 3 passes



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   through

   o  The author's home,

   o  Cox Communications, an Access Network using Cable Modem
      technology,

   o  TransitRail, a commodity peering service for research and
      education (R&E) networks,

   o  Corporation for Education Network Initiatives in California
      (CENIC), a transit provider for educational networks, and

   o  the University of California at Santa Barbara, which in this
      context might be viewed as an access network for its students and
      faculty or as an enterprise network.


     <stealth-10-32-244-218:> fred% traceroute www.ucsb.edu
     traceroute to web.ucsb.edu (128.111.24.41),
             64 hops max, 40 byte packets
      1  fred-vpn (10.32.244.217)  1.560 ms  1.108 ms  1.133 ms
      2  wsip-98-173-193-1.sb.sd.cox.net (98.173.193.1)  12.540 ms  ...
      3  68.6.13.101 ...
      4  68.6.13.129 ...
      5  langbbr01-as0.r2.la.cox.net ...
      6  calren46-cust.lsanca01.transitrail.net ...
      7  dc-lax-core1--lax-peer1-ge.cenic.net ...
      8  dc-lax-agg1--lax-core1-ge.cenic.net ...
      9  dc-ucsb--dc-lax-dc2.cenic.net ...
     10  r2--r1--1.commserv.ucsb.edu ...
     11  574-c--r2--2.commserv.ucsb.edu ...
     12  * * *

       Figure 3: Traceroute from residential customer to educational
                                institution

   Another specific example could be shown in a traceroute from the
   author's home to his employer.  Internet connectivity in that case
   uses a Virtual Private Network (VPN tunnel) from the author's home,
   crossing Cox Cable (an Access Network) and Pacific Bell (a Transit
   Network), and terminating in Cisco Systems (an Enterprise Network); a
   traceroute of the path doesn't show that as it is invisible within
   the VPN and the contents of the VPN are invisible, due to encryption,
   to the networks on the path.  Instead, the traceroute in Figure 4 is
   entirely within Cisco's internal network.





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         <stealth-10-32-244-218:~> fred% traceroute irp-view13
         traceroute to irp-view13.cisco.com (171.70.120.60),
                 64 hops max, 40 byte packets
          1  fred-vpn (10.32.244.217)  2.560 ms  1.100 ms  1.198 ms
                    <tunneled path through Cox and Pacific Bell>
          2  ****
          3  sjc24-00a-gw2-ge2-2 (10.34.251.137)  26.298 ms...
          4  sjc23-a5-gw2-g2-1 (10.34.250.78)  25.214 ms  ...
          5  sjc20-a5-gw1 (10.32.136.21)  23.205 ms  ...
          6  sjc12-abb4-gw1-t2-7 (10.32.0.189)  46.028 ms  ...
          7  sjc5-sbb4-gw1-ten8-2 (171.*.*.*)  26.700 ms  ...
          8  sjc12-dc5-gw2-ten3-1 ...
          9  sjc5-dc4-gw1-ten8-1 ...
         10  irp-view13 ...

                      Figure 4: Traceroute across VPN

   In both cases, it will be observed that the author's home internally
   uses address space from the Address Allocation for Private Internets
   [RFC1918], and other networks generally use public address space.  It
   will also be observed that on entry to UCSB, the traceroute in
   Figure 3 terminates before arriving at the target.

   Three middleware technologies are in obvious use here.  These are the
   use of a firewall, a Network Address Translator (NAT), and a Virtual
   Private Network (VPN).

   Firewalls are generally sold as, and considered, a security
   technology.  A firewall imposes a border between two administrative
   domains, which are usually a residential, SOHO, or enterprise network
   and its access or transit provider.  In its essence, a firewall is a
   data diode, imposing a policy on what sessions may pass between a
   protected domain and the rest of the Internet.  Simple policies
   generally permit sessions to be originated from the protected network
   but not from the outside; more complex policies may permit additional
   sessions from the outside, as electronic mail to a mail server or a
   web session to a web server, and may prevent certain applications
   from global access even though they are originated from the inside.
   Firewalls are controversial in the Internet community; network
   managers often insist on them simply because they impose a boundary;
   others point out that their value as a security solution is
   debatable, as most attacks come from behind the firewall and
   application layer attacks such as viruses carried in email or Active
   X are invisible to them.  In general, as a security solution, they
   are justified as a defense in depth; while the end system must in the
   end be responsible for its own security, a firewall can inhibit or
   prevent certain kinds of attacks from certain quarters such as the
   consumption of CPU time on a critical server.  Key documents



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   describing firewall technology and the issues it poses include:

   o  IP Multicast and Firewalls [RFC2588]

   o  Benchmarking Terminology for Firewall Performance [RFC2647]

   o  Behavior of and Requirements for Internet Firewalls [RFC2979]

   o  Benchmarking Methodology for Firewall Performance [RFC3511]

   o  Mobile IPv6 and Firewalls: Problem Statement [RFC4487]

   o  NAT and Firewall Traversal Issues of Host Identity Protocol
      Communication [RFC5207]

   Network Address Translation is a technology that was developed in
   response to ISP behaviors in the mid-1990's; when [RFC1918] was
   published, many ISPs started handing out single or small numbers of
   addresses, and edge networks were forced to translate.  In time, this
   became considered a good thing, or at least not a bad thing; it
   amplified the public address space, and it was sold as if it were a
   firewall.  It of course is not; while traditional dynamic NATs only
   translate between internal and external session address/aport tuples
   during the detected duration of the session, that session state may
   exist in the network much longer than it exists on the end system,
   and as a result constitutes an attack vector.  The design, value, and
   limitations of network address translation are described in:

   o  IP Network Address Translator Terminology and Considerations
      [RFC2663]

   o  Traditional IP Network Address Translator [RFC3022]

   o  Protocol Complications with the IP Network Address Translator
      [RFC3027]

   o  Network Address Translator Friendly Application Design Guidelines
      [RFC3235]

   o  IAB Considerations for Network Address Translation [RFC3424]

   o  IPsec-Network Address Translation Compatibility Requirements
      [RFC3715]

   o  Network Address Translation Behavioral Requirements for Unicast
      UDP [RFC4787]





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   o  State of Peer-to-Peer Communication across Network Address
      Translators [RFC5128]

   o  IP Multicast Requirements for a Network Address Translator and a
      Network Address Port Translator [RFC5135]

   Virtual Private Networks come in many forms; what they have in common
   is that they are generally tunneled over the internet backbone, so
   that as in Figure 4, connectivity appears to be entirely within the
   edge network although it is in fact across a service provider's
   network.  Examples include IPsec tunnel-mode encrypted tunnels, IP-
   in-IP or GRE tunnels, and MPLS LSPs.


5.  IANA Considerations

   This memo asks the IANA for no new parameters.

   Note to RFC Editor: This section will have served its purpose if it
   correctly tells IANA that no new assignments or registries are
   required, or if those assignments or registries are created during
   the RFC publication process.  From the author"s perspective, it may
   therefore be removed upon publication as an RFC at the RFC Editor's
   discretion.


6.  Security Considerations

   Security is addressed in some detail in Section 2.2 and Section 3.1.


7.  Acknowledgements

   Review comments were made by Andrew Yourtchenko, Ashok Narayanan,
   Bernie Volz, Chris Lonvick, Dave McGrew, Dave Oran, David Su, Hemant
   Singh, James Polk, John Meylor, Joseph Salowey, Julien Abeille, Kerry
   Lynn, Magnus Westerlund, Murtaza Chiba, Paul Duffy, Paul Hoffman,
   Ralph Droms, Russ White, and Toerless Eckert.  Dave McGrew and Ralph
   Droms suggested text.


8.  References

8.1.  Normative References

   [RFC1122]  Braden, R., "Requirements for Internet Hosts -
              Communication Layers", STD 3, RFC 1122, October 1989.




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   [RFC1123]  Braden, R., "Requirements for Internet Hosts - Application
              and Support", STD 3, RFC 1123, October 1989.

   [RFC1812]  Baker, F., "Requirements for IP Version 4 Routers",
              RFC 1812, June 1995.

   [RFC4294]  Loughney, J., "IPv6 Node Requirements", RFC 4294,
              April 2006.

8.2.  Informative References

   [Chapman]  Chapman, E., "Ethernet over Barbed Wire, Arcnet, 100MB
              Token Ring, 100Base-VGAnylan and iSCSI ...", 2007.

   [I-D.ietf-6man-node-req-bis]
              Loughney, J. and T. Narten, "IPv6 Node Requirements RFC
              4294-bis", draft-ietf-6man-node-req-bis-03 (work in
              progress), July 2009.

   [I-D.ietf-ntp-ntpv4-proto]
              Burbank, J., "Network Time Protocol Version 4 Protocol And
              Algorithms Specification", draft-ietf-ntp-ntpv4-proto-11
              (work in progress), September 2008.

   [I-D.ietf-tls-rfc4347-bis]
              Rescorla, E. and N. Modadugu, "Datagram Transport Layer
              Security version 1.2", draft-ietf-tls-rfc4347-bis-02 (work
              in progress), March 2009.

   [RFC0768]  Postel, J., "User Datagram Protocol", STD 6, RFC 768,
              August 1980.

   [RFC0791]  Postel, J., "Internet Protocol", STD 5, RFC 791,
              September 1981.

   [RFC0792]  Postel, J., "Internet Control Message Protocol", STD 5,
              RFC 792, September 1981.

   [RFC0793]  Postel, J., "Transmission Control Protocol", STD 7,
              RFC 793, September 1981.

   [RFC0826]  Plummer, D., "Ethernet Address Resolution Protocol: Or
              converting network protocol addresses to 48.bit Ethernet
              address for transmission on Ethernet hardware", STD 37,
              RFC 826, November 1982.

   [RFC0894]  Hornig, C., "Standard for the transmission of IP datagrams
              over Ethernet networks", STD 41, RFC 894, April 1984.



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   [RFC1006]  Rose, M. and D. Cass, "ISO transport services on top of
              the TCP: Version 3", STD 35, RFC 1006, May 1987.

   [RFC1034]  Mockapetris, P., "Domain names - concepts and facilities",
              STD 13, RFC 1034, November 1987.

   [RFC1035]  Mockapetris, P., "Domain names - implementation and
              specification", STD 13, RFC 1035, November 1987.

   [RFC1112]  Deering, S., "Host extensions for IP multicasting", STD 5,
              RFC 1112, August 1989.

   [RFC1149]  Waitzman, D., "Standard for the transmission of IP
              datagrams on avian carriers", RFC 1149, April 1990.

   [RFC1195]  Callon, R., "Use of OSI IS-IS for routing in TCP/IP and
              dual environments", RFC 1195, December 1990.

   [RFC1305]  Mills, D., "Network Time Protocol (Version 3)
              Specification, Implementation", RFC 1305, March 1992.

   [RFC1332]  McGregor, G., "The PPP Internet Protocol Control Protocol
              (IPCP)", RFC 1332, May 1992.

   [RFC1661]  Simpson, W., "The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)", STD 51,
              RFC 1661, July 1994.

   [RFC1918]  Rekhter, Y., Moskowitz, R., Karrenberg, D., Groot, G., and
              E. Lear, "Address Allocation for Private Internets",
              BCP 5, RFC 1918, February 1996.

   [RFC2045]  Freed, N. and N. Borenstein, "Multipurpose Internet Mail
              Extensions (MIME) Part One: Format of Internet Message
              Bodies", RFC 2045, November 1996.

   [RFC2046]  Freed, N. and N. Borenstein, "Multipurpose Internet Mail
              Extensions (MIME) Part Two: Media Types", RFC 2046,
              November 1996.

   [RFC2047]  Moore, K., "MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions)
              Part Three: Message Header Extensions for Non-ASCII Text",
              RFC 2047, November 1996.

   [RFC2049]  Freed, N. and N. Borenstein, "Multipurpose Internet Mail
              Extensions (MIME) Part Five: Conformance Criteria and
              Examples", RFC 2049, November 1996.

   [RFC2080]  Malkin, G. and R. Minnear, "RIPng for IPv6", RFC 2080,



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              January 1997.

   [RFC2126]  Pouffary, Y. and A. Young, "ISO Transport Service on top
              of TCP (ITOT)", RFC 2126, March 1997.

   [RFC2131]  Droms, R., "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol",
              RFC 2131, March 1997.

   [RFC2136]  Vixie, P., Thomson, S., Rekhter, Y., and J. Bound,
              "Dynamic Updates in the Domain Name System (DNS UPDATE)",
              RFC 2136, April 1997.

   [RFC2328]  Moy, J., "OSPF Version 2", STD 54, RFC 2328, April 1998.

   [RFC2357]  Mankin, A., Romanov, A., Bradner, S., and V. Paxson, "IETF
              Criteria for Evaluating Reliable Multicast Transport and
              Application Protocols", RFC 2357, June 1998.

   [RFC2453]  Malkin, G., "RIP Version 2", STD 56, RFC 2453,
              November 1998.

   [RFC2460]  Deering, S. and R. Hinden, "Internet Protocol, Version 6
              (IPv6) Specification", RFC 2460, December 1998.

   [RFC2464]  Crawford, M., "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Ethernet
              Networks", RFC 2464, December 1998.

   [RFC2516]  Mamakos, L., Lidl, K., Evarts, J., Carrel, D., Simone, D.,
              and R. Wheeler, "A Method for Transmitting PPP Over
              Ethernet (PPPoE)", RFC 2516, February 1999.

   [RFC2545]  Marques, P. and F. Dupont, "Use of BGP-4 Multiprotocol
              Extensions for IPv6 Inter-Domain Routing", RFC 2545,
              March 1999.

   [RFC2549]  Waitzman, D., "IP over Avian Carriers with Quality of
              Service", RFC 2549, April 1999.

   [RFC2581]  Allman, M., Paxson, V., and W. Stevens, "TCP Congestion
              Control", RFC 2581, April 1999.

   [RFC2588]  Finlayson, R., "IP Multicast and Firewalls", RFC 2588,
              May 1999.

   [RFC2615]  Malis, A. and W. Simpson, "PPP over SONET/SDH", RFC 2615,
              June 1999.

   [RFC2647]  Newman, D., "Benchmarking Terminology for Firewall



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              Performance", RFC 2647, August 1999.

   [RFC2663]  Srisuresh, P. and M. Holdrege, "IP Network Address
              Translator (NAT) Terminology and Considerations",
              RFC 2663, August 1999.

   [RFC2710]  Deering, S., Fenner, W., and B. Haberman, "Multicast
              Listener Discovery (MLD) for IPv6", RFC 2710,
              October 1999.

   [RFC2979]  Freed, N., "Behavior of and Requirements for Internet
              Firewalls", RFC 2979, October 2000.

   [RFC3007]  Wellington, B., "Secure Domain Name System (DNS) Dynamic
              Update", RFC 3007, November 2000.

   [RFC3022]  Srisuresh, P. and K. Egevang, "Traditional IP Network
              Address Translator (Traditional NAT)", RFC 3022,
              January 2001.

   [RFC3027]  Holdrege, M. and P. Srisuresh, "Protocol Complications
              with the IP Network Address Translator", RFC 3027,
              January 2001.

   [RFC3168]  Ramakrishnan, K., Floyd, S., and D. Black, "The Addition
              of Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) to IP",
              RFC 3168, September 2001.

   [RFC3235]  Senie, D., "Network Address Translator (NAT)-Friendly
              Application Design Guidelines", RFC 3235, January 2002.

   [RFC3261]  Rosenberg, J., Schulzrinne, H., Camarillo, G., Johnston,
              A., Peterson, J., Sparks, R., Handley, M., and E.
              Schooler, "SIP: Session Initiation Protocol", RFC 3261,
              June 2002.

   [RFC3265]  Roach, A., "Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)-Specific
              Event Notification", RFC 3265, June 2002.

   [RFC3275]  Eastlake, D., Reagle, J., and D. Solo, "(Extensible Markup
              Language) XML-Signature Syntax and Processing", RFC 3275,
              March 2002.

   [RFC3315]  Droms, R., Bound, J., Volz, B., Lemon, T., Perkins, C.,
              and M. Carney, "Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for
              IPv6 (DHCPv6)", RFC 3315, July 2003.

   [RFC3376]  Cain, B., Deering, S., Kouvelas, I., Fenner, B., and A.



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              Thyagarajan, "Internet Group Management Protocol, Version
              3", RFC 3376, October 2002.

   [RFC3424]  Daigle, L. and IAB, "IAB Considerations for UNilateral
              Self-Address Fixing (UNSAF) Across Network Address
              Translation", RFC 3424, November 2002.

   [RFC3436]  Jungmaier, A., Rescorla, E., and M. Tuexen, "Transport
              Layer Security over Stream Control Transmission Protocol",
              RFC 3436, December 2002.

   [RFC3453]  Luby, M., Vicisano, L., Gemmell, J., Rizzo, L., Handley,
              M., and J. Crowcroft, "The Use of Forward Error Correction
              (FEC) in Reliable Multicast", RFC 3453, December 2002.

   [RFC3511]  Hickman, B., Newman, D., Tadjudin, S., and T. Martin,
              "Benchmarking Methodology for Firewall Performance",
              RFC 3511, April 2003.

   [RFC3590]  Haberman, B., "Source Address Selection for the Multicast
              Listener Discovery (MLD) Protocol", RFC 3590,
              September 2003.

   [RFC3715]  Aboba, B. and W. Dixon, "IPsec-Network Address Translation
              (NAT) Compatibility Requirements", RFC 3715, March 2004.

   [RFC3810]  Vida, R. and L. Costa, "Multicast Listener Discovery
              Version 2 (MLDv2) for IPv6", RFC 3810, June 2004.

   [RFC3828]  Larzon, L-A., Degermark, M., Pink, S., Jonsson, L-E., and
              G. Fairhurst, "The Lightweight User Datagram Protocol
              (UDP-Lite)", RFC 3828, July 2004.

   [RFC3850]  Ramsdell, B., "Secure/Multipurpose Internet Mail
              Extensions (S/MIME) Version 3.1 Certificate Handling",
              RFC 3850, July 2004.

   [RFC3853]  Peterson, J., "S/MIME Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
              Requirement for the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP)",
              RFC 3853, July 2004.

   [RFC3940]  Adamson, B., Bormann, C., Handley, M., and J. Macker,
              "Negative-acknowledgment (NACK)-Oriented Reliable
              Multicast (NORM) Protocol", RFC 3940, November 2004.

   [RFC3971]  Arkko, J., Kempf, J., Zill, B., and P. Nikander, "SEcure
              Neighbor Discovery (SEND)", RFC 3971, March 2005.




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   [RFC4033]  Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and S.
              Rose, "DNS Security Introduction and Requirements",
              RFC 4033, March 2005.

   [RFC4034]  Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and S.
              Rose, "Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions",
              RFC 4034, March 2005.

   [RFC4035]  Arends, R., Austein, R., Larson, M., Massey, D., and S.
              Rose, "Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security
              Extensions", RFC 4035, March 2005.

   [RFC4262]  Santesson, S., "X.509 Certificate Extension for Secure/
              Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (S/MIME)
              Capabilities", RFC 4262, December 2005.

   [RFC4271]  Rekhter, Y., Li, T., and S. Hares, "A Border Gateway
              Protocol 4 (BGP-4)", RFC 4271, January 2006.

   [RFC4289]  Freed, N. and J. Klensin, "Multipurpose Internet Mail
              Extensions (MIME) Part Four: Registration Procedures",
              BCP 13, RFC 4289, December 2005.

   [RFC4291]  Hinden, R. and S. Deering, "IP Version 6 Addressing
              Architecture", RFC 4291, February 2006.

   [RFC4301]  Kent, S. and K. Seo, "Security Architecture for the
              Internet Protocol", RFC 4301, December 2005.

   [RFC4303]  Kent, S., "IP Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)",
              RFC 4303, December 2005.

   [RFC4304]  Kent, S., "Extended Sequence Number (ESN) Addendum to
              IPsec Domain of Interpretation (DOI) for Internet Security
              Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP)",
              RFC 4304, December 2005.

   [RFC4306]  Kaufman, C., "Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2) Protocol",
              RFC 4306, December 2005.

   [RFC4307]  Schiller, J., "Cryptographic Algorithms for Use in the
              Internet Key Exchange Version 2 (IKEv2)", RFC 4307,
              December 2005.

   [RFC4309]  Housley, R., "Using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) CCM
              Mode with IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)",
              RFC 4309, December 2005.




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   [RFC4320]  Sparks, R., "Actions Addressing Identified Issues with the
              Session Initiation Protocol's (SIP) Non-INVITE
              Transaction", RFC 4320, January 2006.

   [RFC4330]  Mills, D., "Simple Network Time Protocol (SNTP) Version 4
              for IPv4, IPv6 and OSI", RFC 4330, January 2006.

   [RFC4340]  Kohler, E., Handley, M., and S. Floyd, "Datagram
              Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)", RFC 4340, March 2006.

   [RFC4347]  Rescorla, E. and N. Modadugu, "Datagram Transport Layer
              Security", RFC 4347, April 2006.

   [RFC4410]  Pullen, M., Zhao, F., and D. Cohen, "Selectively Reliable
              Multicast Protocol (SRMP)", RFC 4410, February 2006.

   [RFC4443]  Conta, A., Deering, S., and M. Gupta, "Internet Control
              Message Protocol (ICMPv6) for the Internet Protocol
              Version 6 (IPv6) Specification", RFC 4443, March 2006.

   [RFC4487]  Le, F., Faccin, S., Patil, B., and H. Tschofenig, "Mobile
              IPv6 and Firewalls: Problem Statement", RFC 4487,
              May 2006.

   [RFC4604]  Holbrook, H., Cain, B., and B. Haberman, "Using Internet
              Group Management Protocol Version 3 (IGMPv3) and Multicast
              Listener Discovery Protocol Version 2 (MLDv2) for Source-
              Specific Multicast", RFC 4604, August 2006.

   [RFC4607]  Holbrook, H. and B. Cain, "Source-Specific Multicast for
              IP", RFC 4607, August 2006.

   [RFC4614]  Duke, M., Braden, R., Eddy, W., and E. Blanton, "A Roadmap
              for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Specification
              Documents", RFC 4614, September 2006.

   [RFC4787]  Audet, F. and C. Jennings, "Network Address Translation
              (NAT) Behavioral Requirements for Unicast UDP", BCP 127,
              RFC 4787, January 2007.

   [RFC4861]  Narten, T., Nordmark, E., Simpson, W., and H. Soliman,
              "Neighbor Discovery for IP version 6 (IPv6)", RFC 4861,
              September 2007.

   [RFC4862]  Thomson, S., Narten, T., and T. Jinmei, "IPv6 Stateless
              Address Autoconfiguration", RFC 4862, September 2007.

   [RFC4916]  Elwell, J., "Connected Identity in the Session Initiation



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              Protocol (SIP)", RFC 4916, June 2007.

   [RFC4919]  Kushalnagar, N., Montenegro, G., and C. Schumacher, "IPv6
              over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs):
              Overview, Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals",
              RFC 4919, August 2007.

   [RFC4941]  Narten, T., Draves, R., and S. Krishnan, "Privacy
              Extensions for Stateless Address Autoconfiguration in
              IPv6", RFC 4941, September 2007.

   [RFC4944]  Montenegro, G., Kushalnagar, N., Hui, J., and D. Culler,
              "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over IEEE 802.15.4
              Networks", RFC 4944, September 2007.

   [RFC4960]  Stewart, R., "Stream Control Transmission Protocol",
              RFC 4960, September 2007.

   [RFC4987]  Eddy, W., "TCP SYN Flooding Attacks and Common
              Mitigations", RFC 4987, August 2007.

   [RFC5061]  Stewart, R., Xie, Q., Tuexen, M., Maruyama, S., and M.
              Kozuka, "Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
              Dynamic Address Reconfiguration", RFC 5061,
              September 2007.

   [RFC5072]  S.Varada, Haskins, D., and E. Allen, "IP Version 6 over
              PPP", RFC 5072, September 2007.

   [RFC5128]  Srisuresh, P., Ford, B., and D. Kegel, "State of Peer-to-
              Peer (P2P) Communication across Network Address
              Translators (NATs)", RFC 5128, March 2008.

   [RFC5135]  Wing, D. and T. Eckert, "IP Multicast Requirements for a
              Network Address Translator (NAT) and a Network Address
              Port Translator (NAPT)", BCP 135, RFC 5135, February 2008.

   [RFC5207]  Stiemerling, M., Quittek, J., and L. Eggert, "NAT and
              Firewall Traversal Issues of Host Identity Protocol (HIP)
              Communication", RFC 5207, April 2008.

   [RFC5238]  Phelan, T., "Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) over
              the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)",
              RFC 5238, May 2008.

   [RFC5246]  Dierks, T. and E. Rescorla, "The Transport Layer Security
              (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2", RFC 5246, August 2008.




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   [RFC5308]  Hopps, C., "Routing IPv6 with IS-IS", RFC 5308,
              October 2008.

   [RFC5340]  Coltun, R., Ferguson, D., Moy, J., and A. Lindem, "OSPF
              for IPv6", RFC 5340, July 2008.

   [RFC5393]  Sparks, R., Lawrence, S., Hawrylyshen, A., and B. Campen,
              "Addressing an Amplification Vulnerability in Session
              Initiation Protocol (SIP) Forking Proxies", RFC 5393,
              December 2008.

   [RFC5405]  Eggert, L. and G. Fairhurst, "Unicast UDP Usage Guidelines
              for Application Designers", BCP 145, RFC 5405,
              November 2008.

   [RFC5621]  Camarillo, G., "Message Body Handling in the Session
              Initiation Protocol (SIP)", RFC 5621, September 2009.

   [SP-MULPIv3.0]
              CableLabs, "DOCSIS 3.0 MAC and Upper Layer Protocols
              Interface Specification, CM-SP-MULPIv3.0-I10-090529",
              May 2009.


Author's Address

   Fred Baker
   Cisco Systems
   Santa Barbara, California  93117
   USA

   Email: fred@cisco.com



















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