INTERNET-DRAFT ISO 7812/7816 Numbers and the DNS
August 1998
Expires February 1999
ISO 7812/7816 Based Card Numbers and the Domain Name System (DNS)
--- --------- ----- ---- ------- --- --- ------ ---- ------ -----
Donald E. Eastlake 3rd
Status of This Document
This draft, file name draft-eastlake-card-map-04.txt, is intended to
be become an Informational RFC concerning a technique to use the
Domain Name System (DNS) in automated location of facilities on the
Internet as a function of ISO 7812 and ISO 7816 based identification
card number systems. Distribution of this document is unlimited.
Comments should be sent to the author.
This document is an Internet-Draft. Internet-Drafts are working
documents of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), its areas,
and its working groups. Note that other groups may also distribute
working documents as Internet-Drafts.
Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six
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``working draft'' or ``work in progress.''
To view the entire list of current Internet-Drafts, please check the
"1id-abstracts.txt" listing contained in the Internet-Drafts Shadow
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Europe), ftp.nis.garr.it (Southern Europe), munnari.oz.au (Pacific
Rim), ftp.ietf.org (US East Coast), or ftp.isi.edu (US West Coast).
Donald E. Eastlake 3rd [Page 1]
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Abstract
There are a variety of servers, web pages, and the like, which
holders of ISO 7812 financial transaction identification card numbers
and ISO 7816 smart card or related numbers may need to locate on the
Internet. For example, some systems assume a smart card holder can
contact the issuer of a smart card application for maintenance and
update functions and the SET protocol assumes that a card holder can
locate the appropriate certification authority to obtain a card
holder certificate. This document specifies a method using the DNS as
an important element in locating card related facilities on the
Internet by mapping ISO 7812 and ISO 7816 based number systems into
domain names within in the card.reg.int domain.
Disclaimer
The methods proposed herein are not, at the time of the issuance of
this document, endorsed by the credit card brands or associations for
use in connection with SET.
Acknowledgment
Suggestions from the following persons, listed in alphabetic order,
have been incorporated in this document and are gratefully
acknowledged:
Doug Beattie, Electronic Commerce Consultants
Dave Burdett, Mondex International
Brian Carpenter, IBM
Roebert Elz, University of Melbourne
Tony Lewis, VISA International
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Table of Contents
Status of This Document....................................1
Abstract...................................................2
Disclaimer.................................................2
Acknowledgment.............................................2
Table of Contents..........................................3
1. Introduction............................................4
1.1 ISO 7812 Details.......................................4
1.2 ISO 7816 Details.......................................5
1.2.1 ISO 7816 '0'-'9' Prefixes............................6
1.2.2 ISO 7816 'A' Prefixes................................6
1.2.3 ISO 7816 'D' Prefixes................................7
1.2.4 ISO 7816 'B', 'C', 'E', and 'F' Prefixes.............7
2. Inverse Number Mapping and Wildcards....................8
3. Card Domain Names Specified.............................9
3.1 ISO 7812 Card Brand and Issuer Acquirer Pointers.......9
3.2 ISO 7812 Acquirer Facilities..........................10
3.3 ISO 7812 SET Certification Authority Pointers.........10
3.4 ICON Location.........................................11
3.5 Mondex Purse IDs......................................12
3.6 ISO 7816 Application IDs..............................12
3.7 Financial Institutions Not On Line....................12
3.8 ISO 7812 BIN Ambiguity................................13
3.8.1 Ambiguos BIN Web Page Access........................13
3.8.2 Ambiguous BIN SET CA Access.........................13
4. Security Considerations................................15
References................................................15
Author's Address..........................................17
Expiration and File Name..................................17
Appendix: Initial ISO 7812 Brand Pointers.................18
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1. Introduction
Financial transaction cards such as credit and debit cards are
identified by numbers issued in conjunction with ISO standard 7812
[ISO 7812-1] and applications that run on ISO smart cards are
identified by numbers issued in conjunction with ISO standard 7816
[ISO 7816-5]. In general, the leading digits of such numbers indicate
the issuing institution and the remainder of the number provides
further identification.
There has been no way, given such a number, to automatically find any
Internet site related to the card issuer, the card brand, or other
card facilities. For example, the SET protocol [SET] defined by VISA,
MasterCard, and others, defines a means for cardholders, when
required, to obtain an X.509 compliant certificates to attest to the
cardholder's authenticity but does not specify how to locate the
appropriate certification authority. Some operations in connections
with smart card resident applications, such as resetting certain
error conditions on an Mondex stored value card, may require
contacting the issuer. Other protocols may require that other
facilities based on card number be reached over the Internet.
A means of automatically mapping such identification numbers into
domain names means that as soon as a number is known (due to user
smart card insertion or user selection from a list of previous
entered credit cards, for example), the ability would be present to
easily attempt to contact facilities on the Internet for that number.
Thus web browsers/wallets could provide "go to issuer", "go to
brand", "get a SET certificate", etc., buttons whenever an IS0
7812/7816 identification number is known.
1.1 ISO 7812 Details
Under ISO 7812, card numbers are decimal and the first 6 digits are
formally known as the Issuer Identification Number or IIN. This
prefix is sometimes referred to as the BIN (Bank Identification
Number), although it applies to more than banks, and the entire
number is somtimes known as the PAN (Primary Account Number), even
though these numbers are also used for secondary accounts, Merchant
accounts, and other account and identification numbers. Card numbers
are frequently issued in connection with "brands" such as VISA,
MasterCard, American Express, JCB, Discover, Dinners Club, Air Travel
Card, etc.
Formally, ISO 7812 identification card numbers are divided as
follows:
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1 2-6 7-> last
+-----+-------------------+-----------+-------------+
| MII | issuer identifier | | |
+-----+-------------------+ account # | check digit |
| issuer identification # | | |
+-------------------------+-----------+-------------+
| ISO 7812 identification number |
+---------------------------------------------------+
MII = Major Industry Identifier as follows
0 - for ISO/TC 68 and other industry assignments
1 - airlines
2 - airlines and other industry assignments
3 - travel and entertainment
4/5 - banking/financial
6 - merchandizing and banking
7 - petroleum
8 - telecommunications and other industry assignments
9 - for national assignment
If the number starts with 9, the next three digits are the numeric
country code as defined in ISO 3166 and the remainder of the number
is as defined by that national standards body for that country.
Account numbers are variable length up to a maximum of 12 digits.
The check digit is calculated modulo 10 by the Luhn formula over all
the preceding digits as specified in ISO 7812.
The global registration agency for ISO 7812 Issuer Identification
Numbers is the American Bankers Association (www.aba.com) but
application for an IIN must generally be made through a national
standards boday.
1.2 ISO 7816 Details
ISO smart cards have applications on them each identified by a
hexidecimal Application Identifier (AID) BCD encoded into a maximum
of 16 bytes. In the past, many such cards have had a single
application but multiapplication cards are expected to be more common
in the future.
The first hex digit of the AID indicates the type of AID prefix as
listed below followed by details on each type. In general, the AID
prefix is followed a variable length "Proprietary application
identification extenstion" (PIX) under the control of the issuer
identified by the prefix.
0-9 An ISO 7812 IIN.
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A Internatinal registration.
B-C Reserved for ISO.
D National registration.
E Reserved for ISO.
F Proprietary non-registered
1.2.1 ISO 7816 '0'-'9' Prefixes
AIDs with a prefix of '0' through '9' use ISO 7812 IINs for the
prefix (see section 1.1 above).
+-------------------------+--------+----------------------------+
| ISO 7812 | | Proprietary application |
| issuer identification # | 'FF' | identifier extension (PIX) |
+-------------------------+--------+----------------------------+
| Application identifier (AID), 2-16 bytes |
+---------------------------------------------------------------+
ISO 7816 is designed to be indpendent of IIN length and specifies
that if the IIN length is odd, it should be padded up the next full
byte by suffixing a hex 'F' nibble.
1.2.2 ISO 7816 'A' Prefixes
AIDs with a prefix of 'A' (i.e., binary 1010) followed by 36 bits or
Registry provider number as 9 BCD digits. Values in these 9 nibbles
not corresponding to a decimal digits are reserved for ISO.
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Registered Application | Proprietary application |
| provider identifier (RID) | identifier extension (PIX) |
| 5 bytes | <= 11 bytes |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Application identifier (AID), 1-16 bytes |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
The registration authority is
Tele Denmark
Attn: ISO/IEC 7816-5 Registration Authority
Teglholmsgade 1
1790 Copenhagen V
Denmark
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1.2.3 ISO 7816 'D' Prefixes
The RID consists of the 4 bit D prefix (binary 1101), the country
code in 12 bits as 3 BCD digits coded according to the numeric
country codes in ISO 3166, and 24 additional bits as specified by the
national standards body with BCD coding recommended.
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Registered Application | Proprietary application |
| provider identifier (RID) | identifier extension (PIX) |
| 5 bytes | <= 11 bytes |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
| Application identifier (AID), 1-16 bytes |
+---------------------------------------------------------+
1.2.4 ISO 7816 'B', 'C', 'E', and 'F' Prefixes
Prefixes 'B', 'C', and 'E' are reserved for future use by ISO and not
further specified.
Prefix 'F' indicates a proprietary non-registered AID. Because of
this, the same 'F' prefixed AID could be used by different
application providers.
+------------------------------------------------------+
| Application Label |
+------------------------------------------------------+
| Proprietary application identifier (AID), 1-16 bytes |
+------------------------------------------------------+
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2. Inverse Number Mapping and Wildcards
When numbers are allocated in lexically hierarchical blocks so that a
prefix or suffix of digits is a meaningful division, the DNS wildcard
feature can be used to provide a convenient delgation and lookup
mechanism. This works even when the numbers and prefixes/suffixes
are variable length. In this regard, it is important to remember that
more specific names override less specific ones for DNS wildcards.
Domain names start with the most significant label on the right and
go to less significant labels as you go left while in ISO 7812 and
7816 numbers the leading or left most digits are the most significant
while the trailing or right most digits are less significant. Thus,
the digits must be reversed to match the card number and DNS naming
systems and the digits must be interspersed with dots to provide
hierarchical division into DNS domains.
Note that the transformed, reversed number need not be exposed to
users but could be generated internally by software in an automatic
fashion.
For example, currently the American Express card brand is the only
one using numbers starting with 37. However, this is not a guarantee
for all time and it could be that at some point BIN numbers starting
with 37 would be assigned to a different brand. If you are looking up
facility "z" for card number 37012345678 (not a valid American
Express number), you could do a retrieval with a name like
3.2.1.0.7.3.z.card.reg.int. A wild card RR with the name
*.7.3.z.card.reg.int would match this and would appear in the
response with its name expanded to the specific name asked for, but
only if there were no more specific name. If there were a
3.2.1.0.7.3.z.card.reg.int specific name, for instance, it would
always be chosen in preference to the *.7.3.xz wildcard in this case
because it is a more exact match. On the other hand, if a retrieval
were done for 7.7.7.7.7.3.z.card.reg.int, it would get the more
general *.7.3.z.card.reg.int wild card since it does not match the
more exact wildcard. (The situation is generally somewhat more
complex than indicted here because additional intermediate length
wildcards may be needed. See the Appendix for a more complete
example zone.)
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3. Card Domain Names Specified
Subdomains are currently defined within the card.reg.int domain as
follows in alphabetic order:
acquirer.card.reg.int - ISO 7812 card acquirers
aid.card.reg.int - ISO 7816 application identifiers
brand.card.reg.int. - ISO 7812 card brands.
issuer.card.reg.int. - ISO 7812 card issuers.
mondex.card.reg.int. - Mondex smart card facilities by PID.
set-ca.card.reg.int. - ISO 7812 SET Certification Authorities.
To find a facility, you need to (1) get the number, (2) reverse the
order of these digits, and (3) put a dot between each digit and add
the appropriate facility suffix as shown below. ISO 7812 financial
transaction card identification numbers MUST be truncated to avoid
revealing the full number in the DNS queries but this does not
generally apply to ISO 7816 AIDs.
None of the facility pointers obtained via these means need be
exclusive and these card related Internet facilities may have other
names and URLs that will also work. These facilities are intended to
supplement, not necesarily replace, direct communication of domain
names and URLs from financial institutions to their customers.
3.1 ISO 7812 Card Brand and Issuer Acquirer Pointers
The card brand and issuer home pages can be located by creating the
numeric portion as above and appending ".brand.card.reg.int" or
".issuer.card.reg.int" respectively. A CNAME RR will be stored at
that name pointing to the actual domain name for the home page. A
CNAME is chosen, rather than having specific "A" RRs pointing to
host(s), "MX" RRs pointing to mail servers, etc., to minimize the
update load on the card.reg.int domain. Changes in the serving host,
mail servers, etc., need only be made under the facility's domain
name, which the CNAME points to, rather than also under card.reg.int.
For example, the brand for the card 551204..., a MasterCard card, can
be found by browsing at 4.0.2.1.5.5.brand.card.reg.int. and the
issuer for the card 471922..., a VISA card, can be found by browsing
at 2.2.9.1.7.4.issuer.reg.card.int. These domain names can be
automatically generated from a card number and need not be exposed to
ordinary users.
The Appendix shows possible initial content of the brand.card.reg.int
domain. There are relatively few brands and they are allocated to
moderately compact blocks of numbers with relatively few exceptions
not belonging to the block brand. So there will probably be under
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2,000 entries in the brand.card.reg.int subdomain.
Since there are only a few tens of thousands of banks and other
issuers of significance in the world for financial transaction cards,
there should be well under 200,000 entries in the issuer.card.reg.int
subdomain.
Although at this time very large blocks of numbers are generally
allocated to brands (for example almost all card numbers starting
with 5 and 4 are MasterCard and Visa cards, respectively), some
numbers within these large blocks may be carved out by more specific
entries for other brands.
3.2 ISO 7812 Acquirer Facilities
Generally, merchants are assigned merchant IDs from the space of PANs
by their acquirer. Acquirer facilities can be located from such
numbers using the .acquirer.card.reg.int suffix.
3.3 ISO 7812 SET Certification Authority Pointers
A very high level description of the cardholder certificate issuance
procedure in SET [SET] is for a cardholderCInitRequest initialization
message to be sent to the CA, an initialization response received,
then a registrationFormRequest is sent to the CA and a either
registration form returned which the user fills in or a referral to
another CA is returned. The completed registration form is submitted
in a certificateRequest message to which there is a response which
can include the certificate or indicate it will be issued later or
indicate a failure.
The above sequence can occur over a variety of transports [SET-EIG]
including TCP and HTTP. TCP would be to the SET well known port 257,
unless some other port was mutually agreed on, but cardholder to CA
communication is normally expected to be HTTP. In HTTP, the sequence
is usually preceded by a kick-off message from the CA which is of
MIME type Application/SET-Registration-Initiation which activates a
SET wallet.
In some cases, cardholders will be given SET certificaiton Authority
URLs in mailings from the card issuer or on their card itself.
However, there will be other cases, such as older cards that have not
had a CA URL added or a card for which the URL has changed due to
bank mergers or splits or DNS changes. Furthermore, in certification
authority interaction, the user will be required to supply their full
account number in any case and the requirement that they also
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manually enter a URL means additional effort and opportunity for
error. Note also that ISO 7812 account numbers have a built in check
digit to catch most typographical errors while URLs do not. Thus the
ability to automatically determine a SET CA URL form a card number
would be very helpful.
There are three pointers provided in connection with CAs, one for the
CA general web page for browsing, one derived URL that can be hit to
produce the SET certificate issuance kick-off message, and a derived
URL that can be used to post the initial cardholderCInitRequest if a
kick-off cycle is not needed.
The certification authority home page can be found as described in
3.1 above for brands and issuers, except that the suffix is
".set-ca.card.reg.int".
A CNAME will also be used in this subdomain. At this time it is not
clear in how many cases a certification authority will correspond to
a single BIN, to a brand, to blocks of BINs, or even to part of a BIN
(see section 3.4). Note that the wild card mechanism can easily
accommodate arrangements such as a default certification authority
for a brand with specific CAs for some BINs within that brand.
To determine the URLs to hit for the SET certificate issuance wake up
message [SET-EIG], take the CA domain name as above, prefix it with
"http://", and suffix it with "/SET-Registration-Initiation". For
some purposes, the wake up message may not be necessary. In that
case, the cardholderCInitRequest SET message [SET] can be POSTed
directly to a similar URL but with the suffix of
/cardholderCInitRequest.
Suffix to Domain Name Action
/SET-Registration-Initiation Certificate Request Wakeup
/cardholderCInitRequest SET msg to start cert. req.
Note that no explicit DNS retrieval is necessary. In initiating a
cardholder certificate application for card number 8765432109, you
mechanically transform the number into a URL and go. In this case
that would be, to start with a kick-off,
<http://3.4.5.6.7.8.set-ca.card.int/SET-Registration-Initiation>.
3.4 ICON Location
For many of the facilities locatable via card.reg.int, some user
interface software will want to be able to display an image or icon.
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Standard suffixes to the computed domain name of the facility are
recommended, as listed below, to make the default location of such
icons easier.
Suffix to Domain Name Image Size in Pixels
/icons/exsmall.gif 32 x 32 or 32 x 20
/icons/small.gif 53 x 33
/icons/medium.gif 103 x 65
/icons/large.gif 180 x 114
/icons/exlarge.gif 263 x 166
The larger dimension above is horizontal and the smaller is vertical.
The extra small version is permitted to be a 32x32 square which is a
common desk top operating system icon size. It is recommended that
the extra small size be avoided due to lower recognizability is such
small images. The color palette of the icons should be limited to
colors typically available in an 8 bit or 256 color environment.
The above file name, size, and color recommendations are similar to
those in Book 2 of the SET standards [SET].
3.5 Mondex Purse IDs
The Mondex smart card payment system uses purse IDs on its cards
which have the same format as PANs. mondex.card.reg.int is allocated
for possible used in finding facilities relavent to such cards.
3.6 ISO 7816 Application IDs
Facilties based on ISO 7816 application identifiers can be found
using the
prefix. While a subset of such IDs are structured like ISO 7812
PANs, nevertheless, they are likely to need different facilities so
no reference is made to the parts of the card.reg.int DNS tree
allocated for non-smart card use.
3.7 Financial Institutions Not On Line
Some numbers are allocated to institutions that do not have a network
presence. In some of those cases, a wildcard will provide an
appropriate pointer, say to a brand supplied bank lookup page that
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provides telephone number and address or the like to contact the
bank. However, in cases where the next higher level wildcard would
provide inappropriate pointers for such institutions, it will be
necessary in some cases to add entries for such numbers which are
CNAMEed to "not-on-line.card.reg.int" which will not exist. Thus an
appropriate error message will be generated.
3.8 ISO 7812 BIN Ambiguity
For the facilities under card.reg.int using ISO 7812 numbers, the BIN
is defined as the first six digits of the account number. In many
cases an issuer or certification authority is defined by fewer
digits, frequently the first four digits. This is no problem as a
wild card can be used to match all extensions of this shorter prefix.
However, cases where six digits are insufficient need special
handling as describe below. Such situations can arise due to
subdivision / subdelegation of a BIN for administrative reasons, due
to sale of part of a card population, as parts of bank mergers and
splits, etc. Additional digits can not be used in the DNS because
they would reveal too much of the card number.
3.8.1 Ambiguos BIN Web Page Access
If multiple institutions have decided to share a BIN, there are
several ways the situation can be handled. For the issuer web page
either (1) the insitutions sharing the BIN can run a common web page
with links to their individual pages on it or (2) if they are all the
same brand, the brand can run such a multi-issuer referral page at
the BIN or, in many cases, at a higher level wildcard or (3) in the
event that they are different brands, the card.reg.int maintenance
agency can run a page providing access to the different sub-BIN
issuers. A multiple issuer home page could just have names, icons,
and links to the separate institutions or more complex indexing or
search facilities if it covered many banks. While this problem in
not expected to arise for the brand.card.reg.int subdomain, similar
solutions apply if it does.
3.8.2 Ambiguous BIN SET CA Access
In the cases where a URL is derived to access SET certification
authority facilities, and the BIN is ambiguous, a more automated
solution is available. In particular, instead of a human looking at
a web page, we usuallyy have an application trying to get a
cardholder certificate. In SET, when the registration process
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reaches the point of sending the CA a registration form request, that
request is accompanied (securely) by the full account number. The
registration form response that is returned can have, instead of a
registration form, a referral to a different URL. Thus, the
"certification authority" could be simply a secure referral program
that uses as much of the identification number as it wishes, quite
possibly more than the fist six digits, to determine where to forward
the cardholder application.
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4. Security Considerations
This document concerns a means to map ISO 7812 financial card and ISO
7816 smart card application identification numbers into the Domain
Name System (DNS) so that card related facilities on the Internet can
be automatically located. The security of the resulting pointers is
dependent on the integrity of the card.reg.int maintenance agency and
the security of the DNS, including the use of security extensions
[RFC 2065]. However, note that when used in connection with most
smart card application schemes and with SET certificate issuance, the
security mechanisms of the protocols used after communications is
established provide strong protection against spoofing or compromise
of sensitive information even if the DNS were subverted.
For currently existing types of ISO 7812 financial numbers care
should be taken in making DNS queries that an entire sensitive
identification number is NOT used. Since DNS queries are not
encrypted, this would expose the card number within the Internet. No
more than the initial six digits should be used. (These
considerations do not generally apply to numbers based on ISO 7816
application identifiers.)
References
[ISO 3166] - Codes for the representation of names of countries.
[ISO 7812-1] - Identification card - Identification of Issuers.
[ISO 7816-5] - Identification card - Integrated cirucit(s) cards with
contacts - Numbering system and registration procedures fo
application identifiers
Note: The International Standards Orgnization web site is at
<http://www.iso.ch>. Final ISO standards, such as 3166, 7812, and
7816, are not generally available on the Internet and usually must
be purchased in paper form through national standards bodies.
[RFC 1034] - Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities, P. Mockapetris,
November 1987
[RFC 1035] - Domain Names - Implementation and Specifications, P.
Mockapetris, November 1987.
[RFC 2065] - Domain Name System Security Extensions, D. Eastlake, C.
Kaufman, January 1997.
[SET] - Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) Specification, Version
1.0, May 31, 1997, available from <http://www.setco.org>.
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Book 1: Business Description
Book 2: Programmer's Guide
Book 3: Formal Protocol Definition
[SET-EIG] - External Interface Guide to SET Secure Electronic
Transaction, September 24, 1997, available from
<http://www.setco.org>.
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Author's Address
Donald E. Eastlake 3rd
Transfinite Systems Company, Inc.
318 Acton Street
Carlisle, MA 01741 USA
Telephone: +1 978 287 4877
FAX: +1 978 371 7148
EMail: dee3@torque.pothole.com
Expiration and File Name
This draft expires February 1999.
Its file name is draft-eastlake-card-map-04.txt.
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Appendix: Initial ISO 7812 Brand Pointers
This table shows the initial brand name pointers that might be
installed in the BRAND.card.reg.int domain.
Initial Name CNAME
*.1.brand.card.reg.int www.air-travel-card.com
*.3.brand.card.reg.int unknown-brand.card.reg.int
*.0.3.brand.card.reg.int www.dinersclub.com
*.6.0.3.brand.card.reg.int www.dinersclub.com
*.9.6.0.3.brand.card.reg.int www.jcb.co.jp
*.8.0.3.brand.card.reg.int www.dinersclub.com
*.8.8.0.3.brand.card.reg.int www.jcb.co.jp
*.1.3.brand.card.reg.int www.jcb.co.jp
*.3.3.brand.card.reg.int www.americanexpress.com
*.3.3.3.brand.card.reg.int www.americanexpress.com
*.7.3.3.3.brand.card.reg.int www.jcb.co.jp
*.5.3.brand.card.reg.int unknown-brand.card.reg.int
*.2.5.3.brand.card.reg.int unknown-brand.card.reg.int
*.8.2.5.3.brand.card.reg.int www.jcb.co.jp
*.6.3.brand.card.reg.int www.dinersclub.com
*.7.3.brand.card.reg.int www.americanexpress.com
*.8.3.brand.card.reg.int www.dinersclub.com
*.4.brand.card.reg.int www.visa.com
*.5.brand.card.reg.int www.mastercard.com
*.6.brand.card.reg.int unknown-brand.card.reg.int
*.0.6.brand.card.reg.int unknown-brand.card.reg.int
*.1.0.6.brand.card.reg.int unknown-brand.card.reg.int
*.1.1.0.6.brand.card.reg.int www.novus.com
(MasterCard actually only has numbers starting with 51, 52, 53, 54,
55, and 56 but until some other brand with cards issued with ISO 7812
numbers starting with a 5 are enetered into the DNS zone, there is no
reason to go to any more detail in the wildcard.)
Donald E. Eastlake 3rd [Page 18]