MOPS J. Holland
Internet-Draft Akamai Technologies, Inc.
Intended status: Informational A. Begen
Expires: 5 May 2021 Networked Media
S. Dawkins
Tencent America LLC
1 November 2020
Operational Considerations for Streaming Media
draft-ietf-mops-streaming-opcons-03
Abstract
This document provides an overview of operational networking issues
that pertain to quality of experience in delivery of video and other
high-bitrate media over the internet.
Status of This Memo
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provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
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This Internet-Draft will expire on 5 May 2021.
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Copyright (c) 2020 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
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Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1. Notes for Contributors and Reviewers . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1. Venues for Contribution and Discussion . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2. Template for Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3. History of Public Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. Bandwidth Provisioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1. Scaling Requirements for Media Delivery . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1. Video Bitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2. Virtual Reality Bitrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2. Path Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3. Caching Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4. Predictable Usage Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5. Unpredictable Usage Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.6. Extremely Unpredictable Usage Profiles . . . . . . . . . 9
3. Adaptive Bitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2. Segmented Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.1. Idle Time between Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.2. Head-of-Line Blocking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3. Unreliable Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1. Introduction
As the internet has grown, an increasingly large share of the traffic
delivered to end users has become video. Estimates put the total
share of internet video traffic at 75% in 2019, expected to grow to
82% by 2022. What's more, this estimate projects the gross volume of
video traffic will more than double during this time, based on a
compound annual growth rate continuing at 34% (from Appendix D of
[CVNI]).
In many contexts, video traffic can be handled transparently as
generic application-level traffic. However, as the volume of video
traffic continues to grow, it's becoming increasingly important to
consider the effects of network design decisions on application-level
performance, with considerations for the impact on video delivery.
This document aims to provide a taxonomy of networking issues as they
relate to quality of experience in internet video delivery. The
focus is on capturing characteristics of video delivery that have
surprised network designers or transport experts without specific
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video expertise, since these highlight key differences between common
assumptions in existing networking documents and observations of
video delivery issues in practice.
Making specific recommendations for mitigating these issues is out of
scope, though some existing mitigations are mentioned in passing.
The intent is to provide a point of reference for future solution
proposals to use in describing how new technologies address or avoid
these existing observed problems.
1.1. Notes for Contributors and Reviewers
Note to RFC Editor: Please remove this section and its subsections
before publication.
This section is to provide references to make it easier to review the
development and discussion on the draft so far.
1.1.1. Venues for Contribution and Discussion
This document is in the Github repository at:
https://github.com/ietf-wg-mops/draft-ietf-mops-streaming-opcons
Readers are welcome to open issues and send pull requests for this
document.
Substantial discussion of this document should take place on the MOPS
working group mailing list (mops@ietf.org).
* Join: https://www.ietf.org/mailman/listinfo/mops
* Search: https://mailarchive.ietf.org/arch/browse/mops/
1.1.2. Template for Contributions
Contributions are solicited regarding issues and considerations that
have an impact on media streaming operations.
Please note that contributions may be merged and substantially
edited, and as a reminder, please carefully consider the Note Well
before contributing: https://datatracker.ietf.org/submit/note-well/
Contributions can be emailed to mops@ietf.org, submitted as issues to
the issue tracker of the repository in Section 1.1.1, or emailed to
the document authors at draft-ietf-mops-streaming-opcons@ietf.org.
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Contributors describing an issue not yet addressed in the draft are
requested to provide the following information, where applicable:
* a suggested title or name for the issue
* a long-term pointer to the best reference describing the issue
* a short description of the nature of the issue and its impact on
media quality of service, including:
- where in the network this issue has root causes
- who can detect this issue when it occurs
* an overview of the issue's known prevalence in practice. pointers
to write-ups of high-profile incidents are a plus.
* a list of known mitigation techniques, with (for each known
mitigation):
- a name for the mitigation technique
- a long-term pointer to the best reference describing it
- a short description of the technique:
o what it does
o where in the network it operates
o an overview of the tradeoffs involved-how and why it's
helpful, what it costs.
- supplemental information about the technique's deployment
prevalence and status
1.1.3. History of Public Discussion
Presentations:
* IETF 105 BOF:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4G3YBVmn9Eo&t=47m21s
* IETF 106 meeting:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4_k340xT2jM&t=7m23s
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* MOPS Interim Meeting 2020-04-15:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QExiajdC0IY&t=10m25s
* IETF 108 meeting:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaRsk0y3O9k&t=2m48s
2. Bandwidth Provisioning
2.1. Scaling Requirements for Media Delivery
2.1.1. Video Bitrates
Video bitrate selection depends on many variables. Different
providers give different guidelines, but an equation that
approximately matches the bandwidth requirement estimates from
several video providers is given in [MSOD]:
Kbps = (HEIGHT * WIDTH * FRAME_RATE) / (MOTION_FACTOR * 1024)
Height and width are in pixels, frame rate is in frames per second,
and the motion factor is a value that ranges from 20 for a low-motion
talking heads video to 7 for sports, and content with a lot of screen
changes.
The motion factor captures the variability in bitrate due to the
amount and frequency of high-detail motion, which generally
influences the compressability of the content.
The exact bitrate required for a particular video also depends on a
number of specifics about the codec used and how the codec-specific
tuning parameters are matched to the content, but this equation
provides a rough estimate that approximates the usual bitrate
characteristics using the most common codecs and settings for
production traffic.
Here are a few common resolutions used for video content, with their
typical and peak per-user bandwidth requirements for 60 frames per
second (FPS):
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+============+================+==========+=========+
| Name | Width x Height | Typical | Peak |
+============+================+==========+=========+
| DVD | 720 x 480 | 1.3 Mbps | 3 Mbps |
+------------+----------------+----------+---------+
| 720p (1K) | 1280 x 720 | 3.6 Mbps | 5 Mbps |
+------------+----------------+----------+---------+
| 1080p (2K) | 1920 x 1080 | 8.1 Mbps | 18 Mbps |
+------------+----------------+----------+---------+
| 2160p (4k) | 3840 x 2160 | 32 Mbps | 70 Mbps |
+------------+----------------+----------+---------+
Table 1
2.1.2. Virtual Reality Bitrates
Even the basic virtual reality (360-degree) videos (that allow users
to look around freely, referred to as three degrees of freedom -
3DoF) require substantially larger bitrates when they are captured
and encoded as such videos require multiple fields of view of the
scene. The typical multiplication factor is 8 to 10. Yet, due to
smart delivery methods such as viewport-based or tiled-based
streaming, we do not need to send the whole scene to the user.
Instead, the user needs only the portion corresponding to its
viewpoint at any given time.
In more immersive applications, where basic user movement (3DoF+) or
full user movement (6DoF) is allowed, the required bitrate grows even
further. In this case, the immersive content is typically referred
to as volumetric media. One way to represent the volumetric media is
to use point clouds, where streaming a single object may easily
require a bitrate of 30 Mbps or higher. Refer to [PCC] for more
details.
2.2. Path Requirements
The bitrate requirements in Section 2.1 are per end-user actively
consuming a media feed, so in the worst case, the bitrate demands can
be multiplied by the number of simultaneous users to find the
bandwidth requirements for a router on the delivery path with that
number of users downstream. For example, at a node with 10,000
downstream users simultaneously consuming video streams,
approximately 80 Gbps would be necessary in order for all of them to
get typical content at 1080p resolution at 60 fps, or up to 180 Gbps
to get sustained high-motion content such as sports, while
maintaining the same resolution.
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However, when there is some overlap in the feeds being consumed by
end users, it is sometimes possible to reduce the bandwidth
provisioning requirements for the network by performing some kind of
replication within the network. This can be achieved via object
caching with delivery of replicated objects over individual
connections, and/or by packet-level replication using multicast.
To the extent that replication of popular content can be performed,
bandwidth requirements at peering or ingest points can be reduced to
as low as a per-feed requirement instead of a per-user requirement.
2.3. Caching Systems
When demand for content is relatively predictable, and especially
when that content is relatively static, caching content close to
requesters, and pre-loading caches to respond quickly to initial
requests, is often useful (for example, HTTP/1.1 caching is described
in [RFC7234]). This is subject to the usual considerations for
caching - for example, how much data must be cached to make a
significant difference to the requester, and how the benefits of
caching and pre-loading caches balances against the costs of tracking
"stale" content in caches and refreshing that content.
It is worth noting that not all high-demand content is also "live"
content. One popular example is when popular streaming content can
be staged close to a significant number of requesters, as can happen
when a new episode of a popular show is released. This content may
be largely stable, so low-cost to maintain in multiple places
throughout the Internet. This can reduce demands for high end-to-end
bandwidth without having to use mechanisms like multicast.
Caching and pre-loading can also reduce exposure to peering point
congestion, since less traffic crosses the peering point exchanges if
the caches are placed in peer networks, and could be pre-loaded
during off-peak hours, using "Lower-Effort Per-Hop Behavior (LE PHB)
for Differentiated Services" [RFC8622], "Low Extra Delay Background
Transport (LEDBAT)" [RFC6817], or similar mechanisms.
All of this depends, of course, on the ability of a content provider
to predict usage and provision bandwidth, caching, and other
mechanisms to meet the needs of users. In some cases (Section 2.4),
this is relatively routine, but in other cases, it is more difficult
(Section 2.5, Section 2.6).
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2.4. Predictable Usage Profiles
Historical data shows that users consume more video and videos at
higher bitrates than they did in the past on their connected devices.
Improvements in the codecs that help with reducing the encoding
bitrates with better compression algorithms could not have offset the
increase in the demand for the higher quality video (higher
resolution, higher frame rate, better color gamut, better dynamic
range, etc.). In particular, mobile data usage has shown a large
jump over the years due to increased consumption of entertainement as
well as conversational video.
TBD: insert charts showing historical relative data usage patterns
with error bars by time of day in consumer networks?
Cross-ref vs. video quality by time of day in practice for some case
study? Not sure if there's a good way to capture a generalized
insight here, but it seems worth making the point that demand
projections can be used to help with e.g. power consumption with
routing architectures that provide for modular scalability.
2.5. Unpredictable Usage Profiles
Although TCP/IP has been used with a number of widely used
applications that have symmetric bandwidth requirements (similar
bandwidth requirements in each direction between endpoints), many
widely-used Internet applications operate in client-server roles,
with asymmetric bandwidth requirements. A common example might be an
HTTP GET operation, where a client sends a relatively small HTTP GET
request for a resource to an HTTP server, and often receives a
significantly larger response carrying the requested resource. When
HTTP is commonly used to stream movie-length video, the ratio between
response size and request size can become quite large.
For this reason, operators may pay more attention to downstream
bandwidth utilization when planning and managing capacity. In
addition, operators have been able to deploy access networks for end
users using underlying technologies that are inherently asymetric,
favoring downstream bandwidth (e.g. ADSL, cellular technologies,
most IEEE 802.11 variants), assuming that users will need less
upstream bandwidth than downstream bandwidth. This strategy usually
works, except when it does not, because application bandwidth usage
patterns have changed.
One example of this type of change was when peer-to-peer file sharing
applications gained popularity in the early 2000s. To take one well-
documented case ([RFC5594]), the Bittorrent application created
"swarms" of hosts, uploading and downloading files to each other,
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rather than communicating with a server. Bittorrent favored peers
who uploaded as much as they downloaded, so that new Bittorrent users
had an incentive to significantly increase their upstream bandwidth
utilization.
The combination of the large volume of "torrents" and the peer-to-
peer characteristic of swarm transfers meant that end user hosts were
suddenly uploading higher volumes of traffic to more destinations
than was the case before Bittorrent. This caused at least one large
ISP to attempt to "throttle" these transfers, to mitigate the load
that these hosts placed on their network. These efforts were met by
increased use of encryption in Bittorrent, similar to an arms race,
and set off discussions about "Net Neutrality" and calls for
regulatory action.
Especially as end users increase use of video-based social networking
applications, it will be helpful for access network providers to
watch for increasing numbers of end users uploading significant
amounts of content.
2.6. Extremely Unpredictable Usage Profiles
The causes of unpredictable usage described in Section 2.5 were more
or less the result of human choices, but we were reminded during a
post-IETF 107 meeting that humans are not always in control, and
forces of nature can cause enormous fluctuations in traffic patterns.
In his talk, Sanjay Mishra [Mishra] reported that after the CoViD-19
pandemic broke out in early 2020,
* Comcast's streaming and web video consumption rose by 38%, with
their reported peak traffic up 32% overall between March 1 to
March 30 [Comcast],
* AT&T reported a 28% jump in core network traffic (single day in
April, as compared to pre stay-at-home daily average traffic),
with video accounting for nearly half of all mobile network
traffic, while social networking and web browsing remained the
highest percentage (almost a quarter each) of overall mobility
traffic [ATT], and
* Verizon reported similar trends with video traffic up 36% over an
average day (pre COVID-19) [Verizon].
We note that other operators saw similar spikes during this time
period. Craig Labowitz [Labovitz] reported
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* Weekday peak traffic increases over 45%-50% from pre-lockdown
levels,
* A 30% increase in upstream traffic over their pre-pandemic levels,
and
* A steady increase in the overall volume of DDoS traffic, with
amounts exceeding the pre-pandemic levels by 40%. (He attributed
this increase to the significant rise in gaming-related DDoS
attacks ([LabovitzDDoS]), as gaming usage also increased.)
3. Adaptive Bitrate
3.1. Overview
Adaptive BitRate (ABR) is a sort of application-level response
strategy in which the receiving media player attempts to detect the
available bandwidth of the network path by experiment or by observing
the successful application-layer download speed, then chooses a video
bitrate (among the limited number of available options) that fits
within that bandwidth, typically adjusting as changes in available
bandwidth occur in the network or changes in capabilities occur in
the player (such as available memory, CPU, display size, etc.).
The choice of bitrate occurs within the context of optimizing for
some metric monitored by the video player, such as highest achievable
video quality, or lowest rate of expected rebuffering events.
3.2. Segmented Delivery
ABR playback is commonly implemented by video players using HLS
[RFC8216] or DASH [DASH] to perform a reliable segmented delivery of
video data over HTTP. Different player implementations and receiving
devices use different strategies, often proprietary algorithms
(called rate adaptation or bitrate selection algorithms), to perform
available bandwidth estimation/prediction and the bitrate selection.
Most players only use passive observations, i.e., they do not
generate probe traffic to measure the available bandwidth.
This kind of bandwidth-measurement systems can experience trouble in
several ways that can be affected by networking design choices.
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3.2.1. Idle Time between Segments
When the bitrate selection is successfully chosen below the available
capacity of the network path, the response to a segment request will
typically complete in less absolute time than the duration of the
requested segment. The resulting idle time within the connection
carrying the segments has a few surprising consequences:
* Mobile flow-bandwidth spectrum and timing mapping.
* TCP slow-start when restarting after idle requires multiple RTTs
to re-establish a throughput at the network's available capacity.
On high-RTT paths or with small enough segments, this can produce
a falsely low application-visible measurement of the available
network capacity.
A detailed investigation of this phenomenon is available in
[NOSSDAV12].
3.2.2. Head-of-Line Blocking
In the event of a lost packet on a TCP connection with SACK support
(a common case for segmented delivery in practice), loss of a packet
can provide a confusing bandwidth signal to the receiving
application. Because of the sliding window in TCP, many packets may
be accepted by the receiver without being available to the
application until the missing packet arrives. Upon arrival of the
one missing packet after retransmit, the receiver will suddenly get
access to a lot of data at the same time.
To a receiver measuring bytes received per unit time at the
application layer, and interpreting it as an estimate of the
available network bandwidth, this appears as a high jitter in the
goodput measurement.
Active Queue Management (AQM) systems such as PIE [RFC8033] or
variants of RED [RFC2309] that induce early random loss under
congestion can mitigate this by using ECN [RFC3168] where available.
ECN provides a congestion signal and induce a similar backoff in
flows that use Explicit Congestion Notification-capable transport,
but by avoiding loss avoids inducing head-of-line blocking effects in
TCP connections.
3.3. Unreliable Transport
In contrast to segmented delivery, several applications use UDP or
unreliable SCTP to deliver RTP or raw TS-formatted video.
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Under congestion and loss, this approach generally experiences more
video artifacts with fewer delay or head-of-line blocking effects.
Often one of the key goals is to reduce latency, to better support
applications like videoconferencing, or for other live-action video
with interactive components, such as some sporting events.
Congestion avoidance strategies for this kind of deployment vary
widely in practice, ranging from some streams that are entirely
unresponsive to using feedback signaling to change encoder settings
(as in [RFC5762]), or to use fewer enhancement layers (as in
[RFC6190]), to proprietary methods for detecting quality of
experience issues and cutting off video.
4. IANA Considerations
This document requires no actions from IANA.
5. Security Considerations
This document introduces no new security issues.
6. Acknowledgements
Thanks to Mark Nottingham, Glenn Deen, Dave Oran, Aaron Falk, Kyle
Rose, Leslie Daigle, Lucas Pardue, Matt Stock, Alexandre Gouaillard,
and Mike English for their very helpful reviews and comments.
7. Informative References
[ATT] AT&T, "Tuesday (March 24, 2020) Network Insights", March
2020, <https://about.att.com/pages/COVID-19/updates.html>.
[Comcast] CNBC, "Comcast sees network traffic surge amid coronavirus
outbreak", March 2020,
<https://www.cnbc.com/video/2020/03/30/comcast-sees-
network-traffic-surge-amid-coronavirus-outbreak.html>.
[CVNI] Cisco Systems, Inc., "Cisco Visual Networking Index:
Forecast and Trends, 2017-2022 White Paper", 27 February
2019, <https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/
service-provider/visual-networking-index-vni/white-paper-
c11-741490.html>.
[DASH] "Information technology -- Dynamic adaptive streaming over
HTTP (DASH) -- Part 1: Media presentation description and
segment formats", ISO/IEC 23009-1:2019, 2019.
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[Labovitz] Labovitz, C. and Nokia Deepfield, "Network traffic
insights in the time of COVID-19: April 9 update", April
2020, <https://www.nokia.com/blog/network-traffic-
insights-time-covid-19-april-9-update/>.
[LabovitzDDoS]
Takahashi, D. and Venture Beat, "Why the game industry is
still vulnerable to DDoS attacks", May 2018,
<https://venturebeat.com/2018/05/13/why-the-game-industry-
is-still-vulnerable-to-distributed-denial-of-service-
attacks/>.
[Mishra] Mishra, S. and J. Thibeault, "An update on Streaming Video
Alliance", 2020, <https://datatracker.ietf.org/meeting/
interim-2020-mops-01/materials/slides-interim-2020-mops-
01-sessa-april-15-2020-mops-interim-an-update-on-
streaming-video-alliance>.
[MSOD] Akamai Technologies, Inc., "Media Services On Demand:
Encoder Best Practices", 2019, <https://learn.akamai.com/
en-us/webhelp/media-services-on-demand/media-services-on-
demand-encoder-best-practices/GUID-7448548A-A96F-4D03-
9E2D-4A4BBB6EC071.html>.
[NOSSDAV12]
al., S.A.e., "What Happens When HTTP Adaptive Streaming
Players Compete for Bandwidth?", June 2012,
<https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2229087.2229092>.
[PCC] al., S.S.e., "Emerging MPEG Standards for Point Cloud
Compression", March 2019,
<https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8571288>.
[RFC2309] Braden, B., Clark, D., Crowcroft, J., Davie, B., Deering,
S., Estrin, D., Floyd, S., Jacobson, V., Minshall, G.,
Partridge, C., Peterson, L., Ramakrishnan, K., Shenker,
S., Wroclawski, J., and L. Zhang, "Recommendations on
Queue Management and Congestion Avoidance in the
Internet", RFC 2309, DOI 10.17487/RFC2309, April 1998,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2309>.
[RFC3168] Ramakrishnan, K., Floyd, S., and D. Black, "The Addition
of Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) to IP",
RFC 3168, DOI 10.17487/RFC3168, September 2001,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3168>.
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[RFC5594] Peterson, J. and A. Cooper, "Report from the IETF Workshop
on Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Infrastructure, May 28, 2008",
RFC 5594, DOI 10.17487/RFC5594, July 2009,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5594>.
[RFC5762] Perkins, C., "RTP and the Datagram Congestion Control
Protocol (DCCP)", RFC 5762, DOI 10.17487/RFC5762, April
2010, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5762>.
[RFC6190] Wenger, S., Wang, Y.-K., Schierl, T., and A.
Eleftheriadis, "RTP Payload Format for Scalable Video
Coding", RFC 6190, DOI 10.17487/RFC6190, May 2011,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6190>.
[RFC6817] Shalunov, S., Hazel, G., Iyengar, J., and M. Kuehlewind,
"Low Extra Delay Background Transport (LEDBAT)", RFC 6817,
DOI 10.17487/RFC6817, December 2012,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6817>.
[RFC7234] Fielding, R., Ed., Nottingham, M., Ed., and J. Reschke,
Ed., "Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP/1.1): Caching",
RFC 7234, DOI 10.17487/RFC7234, June 2014,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7234>.
[RFC8033] Pan, R., Natarajan, P., Baker, F., and G. White,
"Proportional Integral Controller Enhanced (PIE): A
Lightweight Control Scheme to Address the Bufferbloat
Problem", RFC 8033, DOI 10.17487/RFC8033, February 2017,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8033>.
[RFC8216] Pantos, R., Ed. and W. May, "HTTP Live Streaming",
RFC 8216, DOI 10.17487/RFC8216, August 2017,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8216>.
[RFC8622] Bless, R., "A Lower-Effort Per-Hop Behavior (LE PHB) for
Differentiated Services", RFC 8622, DOI 10.17487/RFC8622,
June 2019, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8622>.
[Verizon] Rorbuck, M. and Fierce Telecom, "Verizon: U.S. network
usage starts to normalize as subscribers settle into new
routines", April 2020,
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Authors' Addresses
Holland, et al. Expires 5 May 2021 [Page 14]
Internet-Draft Media Streaming Ops November 2020
Jake Holland
Akamai Technologies, Inc.
150 Broadway
Cambridge, MA 02144,
United States of America
Email: jakeholland.net@gmail.com
Ali Begen
Networked Media
Turkey
Email: ali.begen@networked.media
Spencer Dawkins
Tencent America LLC
United States of America
Email: spencerdawkins.ietf@gmail.com
Holland, et al. Expires 5 May 2021 [Page 15]