Network Working Group W. Liu
Internet-Draft Huawei Technologies
Intended status: Informational C. Xie
Expires: January 18, 2018 China Telecom Beijing Research Institute
J. Strassner
G. Karagiannis
Huawei Technologies
M. Klyus
NetCracker
J. Bi
Tsinghua University
July 17, 2017
SUPA Policy-based Management Framework
draft-ietf-supa-policy-based-management-framework-03
Abstract
Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions (SUPA) defines base YANG data
models to encode policy, which point to device-, technology-, and
service-specific YANG models developed elsewhere. Policy rules
within an operator's environment can be used to express high-level,
possibly network-wide policies to a network management function
(within a controller, an orchestrator, or a network element). The
network management function can then control the configuration and/or
monitoring of network elements and services. This document describes
the SUPA basic framework, its elements and interfaces.
Status of This Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute
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Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.
Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."
This Internet-Draft will expire on January 18, 2018.
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Copyright Notice
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Framework for Generic Policy-based Management . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2. Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.3. The GPIM and the EPRIM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4. Creation of Generic YANG Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6. Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. Introduction
Traffic flows over increasingly complex enterprise and service
provider networks become more and more important. Meanwhile, the
rapid growth of the variety makes the task of network operations and
management applications deploying new services much more difficult.
Moreover, network operators want to deploy new services quickly and
efficiently. Two possible mechanisms for dealing with this growing
difficulty are the use of software abstractions to simplify the
design and configuration of monitoring and control operations, and
the use of programmatic control over the configuration and operation
of such networks. Policy-based management can be used to combine
these two mechanisms into an extensible framework.
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Policy rules within an operator's environment are a set of rules that
define how services are designed, delivered, and operated. The SUPA
(Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions) data model represents high-
level, possibly network-wide policy, which can be input to a network
management function (within a controller, an orchestrator, or a
network element).The network management function can then control the
configuration and/or monitoring of network elements and services
according to such policies.
SUPA defines a generic policy information model (GPIM) [I-D.ietf-
supa-generic-policy-info-model] for use in network operations and
management applications. The GPIM defines concepts and terminology
needed by policy management independent of the form and content of
the policy rule. The Event-Condition-Action (ECA) Policy Rule
Information Model (EPRIM) [I-D.ietf-supa-generic-policyinfo-model]
extends the GPIM by defining how to build policy rules according to
the event-condition-action paradigm.
Both the GPIM and the EPRIM are targeted at controlling the
configuration and monitoring of network elements throughout the
service development and deployment lifecycle. The GPIM and the EPRIM
can both be translated into corresponding YANG [RFC6020][RFC6020bis]
modules that define policy concepts, terminology, and rules in a
generic and interoperable manner; additional YANG modules may also be
derived from the GPIM and/or EPRIM to manage specific functions.
The key benefit of policy management is that it enables different
network elements and services to be instructed to behave the same
way, even if they are programmed differently. Management
applications will benefit from using policy rules that enable
scalable and consistent programmatic control over the configuration
and monitoring of network elements and services.
Some typical and useful instances, for authors to understand the
applicability of SUPA, such as SNMP blocking upon load of link
reaching a threshold, virtual maching migration upon the changinng of
user location, are written in [I-D.cheng-supa-applicability].
2. Terminology
SUPA: Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions, is the working group
name, which defines a data model, to be used to represent high-level,
possibly network-wide policies, which can be input to a network
management function (within a controller, an orchestrator, or a
network element).
YANG: an acronym for "Yet Another Next Generation". YANG is a data
modeling language used to model configuration and state data
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manipulated by the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF), NETCONF
remote procedure calls, and NETCONF notifications.[RFC6020]
ECA: Event-Condition-Action, is a short-cut for referring to the
structure of active rules in event driven architecture and active
database systems.
EMS: Element Management System, software to monitor and control
network elements (devices) in telecommunications.
NMS: Network Management System, a set of hardware and/or software
tools that allow an IT professional to supervise the individual
components of a network within a larger network management framework.
OSS: Operations/Operational Support System, are computer systems used
by telecommunications service providers to manage their networks
(e.g., telephone networks).
BSS: Business Support Systems, are used to support various end-to-end
telecommunication services.
GPIM: Generic Policy Information Model, which defines concepts and
terminology needed by policy management independent of the form and
content of the policy rule.
EPRIM: ECA Policy Rule Information Model, which extends the GPIM by
defining how to build policy rules according to the event-condition-
action paradigm.
GPDM: Generic Policy Data Models [I-D.ietf-supa-generic-policy-data-
model], are created from the GPIM. These YANG data model policies
are used to control the configuration of network elements that model
the service(s) to be managed. The relationship of information model
(IM) and DM can be founded in [RFC3444].
Declarative Policy: policies that specify the goals to be achieved
but not how to achieve those goals (also called "intent-based"
policies). Please note that declarative policies are out of scope
for the initial phase of SUPA.
3. Framework for Generic Policy-based Management
This section briefly describes the design and operation of the SUPA
policy-based management framework.
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3.1. Overview
Figure 1 shows a simplified functional architecture of how SUPA is
used to define policies for creating network element configuration
snippets. (Note from Editor: a "snippet" is a small piece of
information (e.g., part of a sentence that was cut out).) SUPA uses
the GPIM to define a consensual vocabulary that different actors can
use to interact with network elements and services. The EPRIM
defines a generic structure for imperative policies. The GPIM, and/
or the combination of the GPIM and the EPRIM, is converted to generic
YANG data modules.
In one possible approach (shown with asterisks in Figure 1), SUPA
Generic Policy and SUPA ECA Policy YANG data modules together with
the Resource and Service YANG data models specified in IETF (which
define the specific elements that will be controlled by policies) are
used by the Service Interface Logic. This Service Interface Logic
creates appropriate input mechanisms for the operator to define
policies (e.g., a web form or a script) for creating and managing the
network configuration. The operator interacts with the interface,
the policies input by operators are then translated to configuration
snippets.
Note that the Resource and Service YANG models may not exist. In
this case, the SUPA generic policy YANG data modules serve as an
extensible basis to develop new YANG data models for the Service
Interface Logic This transfers the work specified by the Resource and
Service YANG data models specified in IETF into the Service Interface
Logic.
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+---------------------+
+----------+ \| SUPA |
| IETF |---+----+ Information Models |
+----------+ | /| GPIM and EPRIM |
| +---------+-----------+
Assignments | | Defines Policy Concepts
and Manage | \|/
Content | +---------+-----------+
| \| SUPA Generic |
+----+ & ECA Policy |
/| YANG Data modules |
+---------+-----------+
* Possible Approach
+-----------------------------*-----------------------------+
| Management System * |
| \*/ |
| Fills +---------+---------+ +-------------+ |
| +--------+ Forms \| Service Interface |/ |Resource and |/ | +----+
| |Operator|--------+ Logic +--|Service YANG |----|IETF|
| +--------+ Runs /| (locally defined |\ | Data Models |\ | +----+
| scripts |forms, scripts,...)| +-------------+ |
| +---------+---------+ |
| \|/ |
| +-------+--------+ |
| | Local Devices | |
| | and Management | |
| | Systems | |
| +----------------+ |
+-----------------------------------------------------------+
Figure 1: SUPA Framework
Figure 1 is exemplary. The Operator actor can interact with SUPA in
other ways not shown in Figure 1. In addition, other actors (e.g.,
an application developer) that can interact with SUPA are not shown
for simplicity.
The EPRIM defines an ECA policy as an example of imperative policies.
An ECA policy rule is activated when its event clause is true; the
condition clause is then evaluated and, if true, signals the
execution of one or more actions in the action clause. This type of
policy explicitly defines the current and desired states of the
system being managed. Imperative policy rules require additional
management functions, which are explained in section 3.2 below.
Figure 2 shows how the SUPA Policy Model is used to create policy
data models step by step and how the policy rules are used to
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communicate among various network management functions located on
different layers.
The Generic Policy Information Model (GPIM) is used to construct
policies. The GPIM defines generic policy concepts, as well as two
types of policies: ECA policy rules and declarative policy
statements.
A set of Generic Policy Data Models (GPDM) are then created from the
GPIM. These YANG data model policies are then used to control the
configuration of network elements that model the service(s) to be
managed.
Resource and Service YANG Data Models: models of the service as well
as physical and virtual network topology including the resource
attributes (e.g., data rate or latency of links) and operational
parameters needed to support service deployment over the network
topology.
| SUPA Policy Model
|
| +----------------------------------+
| | Generic Policy Information Model |
| +----------------------------------+
| D D
| D +-------------v-------------+
+----------------------+ | D | ECA Policy Rule |
| OSS/BSS/Orchestrator <--+ | D | Information Model |
+----------^-----------+ | | D +---------------------------+
C | | D D
C | | +----+D+------------------------+D+---+
C +-----+ D SUPA Policy Data Model D |
+----------v-----------+ | | ----v-----------------------+ D |
| EMS/NMS/Controller <--------+ | Generic Policy Data Model | D |
+----------^-----------+ | | ----------------------------+ D |
C +-----+ D D |
C | | | +---------v-----------------v--+ |
+----------v-----------+ | | | | ECA Policy Rule Data Model | |
| Network Element <--+ | | +------------------------------+ |
+----------------------+ | +-------------------------------------+
|
|
Figure 2: SUPA Policy Model Framework
In Figure 2:
The double-headed arrow with Cs means communication;
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The arrow with Ds means derived from.
The components within this framework are:
SUPA Policy Model: represents one or more policy modules that contain
the following entities:
Generic Policy Information Model: a model for defining policy rules
that are independent of data repository, data definition, query,
implementation languages, and protocol. This model is abstract and
is used for design; it MUST be turned into a data model for
implementation.
Generic Policy Data Model: a model of policy rules that are dependent
on data repository, data definition, query, implementation languages,
and protocol.
ECA Policy Rule Information Model (EPRIM): represents a policy rule
as a statement that consists of an event clause, a condition clause,
and an action clause. This type of Policy Rule explicitly defines
the current and desired states of the system being managed. This
model is abstract and is used for design; it MUST be turned into a
data model for implementation.
ECA Policy Rule Data Model: a model of policy rules, derived from
EPRIM, while each policy rule consists of an event clause, a
condition clause, and an action clause.
EMS/NMS/Controller: represents one or more entities that are able to
control the operation and management of a network infrastructure
(e.g., a network topology that consists of Network Elements).
Network Element (NE), which can interact with local or remote
EMS/NMS/Controller in order to exchange information, such as
configuration information, policy enforcement capabilities, and
network status.
Relationship between Policy, Service and Resource models can be
illustrated by the figure below.
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+---------------+ +----------------+
| Policy | (1) | Service |
| |*******************| |
| ( SUPA ) |*******************| ( L3SM, ... ) |
+---------------+ +----------------+
** /*\
** *
** *
(2) ** * (3)
** *
** *
** *
+-------------------+
| Resource |
| |
| (Inventory, ... ) |
+-------------------+
Figure 3: Relationship between Policy, Service and Resource models
In Figure 3:
(1) policy manages and can adjust service behavior as necessary
(1:1..n). In addition, data from resources and services are used
to select and/or modify policies during runtime.
(2) policy manages and can adjust resource behavior as necessary
(1:1..n)
(3) resource hosts service; changing resources may change service
behavior as necessary
Policies are used to control the management of resources and
services, while data from resources and services are used to select
and/or modify policies during runtime. More importantly, policies
can be used to manage how resources are allocated and assigned to
services. This enables a single policy to manage one or multiple
services and resources as well as their dependencies. (1:1..n) in (1)
and (2) below figure 3 show one policy rule is able to manages and
can adjust one or multiple services/resources. Line (1) and (2)
connecting policy to resource and policy to service are the same, and
line (3) connecting resource to service is different as it's
navigable only from resource to service.
3.2. Operation
SUPA can be used to define various types of policies, including
policies that affect services and/or the configuration of individual
or groups of network elements. SUPA can be used by a centralized
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and/or distributed set of entities for creating, managing,
interacting with, and retiring policy rules.
The SUPA scope is limited to policy information and data models.
SUPA does not define network resource data models or network service
data models; both are out of scope. Instead, SUPA makes use of
network resource data models defined by other WGs or SDOs.
Declarative policies are out of scope for the initial phase of SUPA.
3.3. The GPIM and the EPRIM
The GPIM provides a common vocabulary for representing concepts that
are common to different types of policy, but which are independent of
language, protocol, repository, and level of abstraction. Hence, the
GPIM defines concepts and vocabulary needed by policy management
systems independent of the form and content of the policy. The EPRIM
is a more specific model that refines the GPIM to specify policy
rules in an event-condition-action form.
This enables different policies at different levels of abstraction to
form a continuum, where more abstract policies can be translated into
more concrete policies, and vice-versa. For example, the information
model can be extended by generalizing concepts from an existing data
model into the GPIM; the GPIM extensions can then be used by other
data models.
3.4. Creation of Generic YANG Modules
An information model is abstract. As such, it cannot be directly
instantiated (i.e., objects cannot be created directly from it).
Therefore, both the GPIM and the combination of the GPIM and the
EPRIM, are translated to generic YANG modules.
SUPA will provide guidelines for translating the GPIM (or the
combination of the GPIM and the EPRIM) into concrete YANG data models
that define how to manage and communicate policies between systems.
Multiple imperative policy YANG data models may be instantiated from
the GPIM (or the combination of the GPIM and the EPRIM). In
particular, SUPA will specify a set of YANG data models that will
consist of a base policy model for representing policy management
concepts independent of the type or structure of a policy, and as
well, an extension for defining policy rules according to the ECA
paradigm.(Note from Editor: This means that policies can be defined
using the GPIM directly, or using the combination of the GPIM and the
EPRIM. If you use only the GPIM, you get a technology- and vendor-
independent information model that you are free to map to the data
model of your choice; note that the structure of a policy is NOT
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defined. If you use the GPIM and the EPRIM, you get a technology-
and vendor-independent information model that defines policies as an
event-condition-action (i.e., imperative) rule.)
The process of developing the GPIM, EPRIM and the derived/translated
YANG data models is realized following the sequence shown below.
After completing this process and if the implementation of the YANG
data models requires it, the GPIM and EPRIM and the derived/
translated YANG data models are updated and synchronized.
(1)=>(2)=>(3)=>(4)=>(3')=>(2')=>(1')
Where, (1)=GPIM; (2)=EPRIM; (3)=YANG data models; (4)=
Implementation; (3')= update of YANG data models; (2')=update of
EPRIM; (1') = update of GPIM
The YANG module derived from the GPIM contains concepts and
terminology for the common operation and administration of policy-
based systems, as well as an extensible structure for policy rules of
different paradigms. The YANG module derived from the EPRIM extends
the generic nature of the GPIM by representing policies using an
event-condition-action structure.
The above sequence allows for the addition of new, as well as the
editing of existing model elements in the GPIM and EPRIM. In
practice, the implementation sequence may be much simpler.
Specifically, it is unlikely that the GPIM will need to be changed.
In addition, changes to the EPRIM will likely be focused on fine-
tuning the behavior offered by a specific set of model elements.
4. Security Considerations
TBD
5. IANA Considerations
This document has no actions for IANA.
6. Contributors
The following people all contributed to creating this document,
listed in alphabetical order:
Ying Chen, China Unicom
Luis M. Contreras, Telefonica I+D
Dan Romascanu, Avaya
J. Schoenwaelder, Jacobs University, Germany
Qiong Sun, China Telecom
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7. Acknowledgements
This document has benefited from reviews, suggestions, comments and
proposed text provided by the following members, listed in
alphabetical order: Andy Bierman, Marc Blanchet, Benoit Claise, Joel
Halpern, Jonathan Hansford, Diego R. Lopez, Johannes Merkle, Gunter
Wang, Bert Wijnen, Tianran Zhou.
Part of the initial draft of this document was picked up from
previous documents, and this section lists the acknowledgements from
them.
From "SUPA Value Proposition" [I-D.klyus-supa-value-proposition]
The following people all contributed to creating this document,
listed in alphabetical order:
Vikram Choudhary, Huawei Technologies
Luis M. Contreras, Telefonica I+D
Dan Romascanu, Avaya
J. Schoenwaelder, Jacobs University, Germany
Qiong Sun, China Telecom
Parviz Yegani, Juniper Networks
This document has benefited from reviews, suggestions, comments and
proposed text provided by the following members, listed in
alphabetical order: H. Rafiee, J. Saperia and C. Zhou.
The authors of "SUPA Value Proposition" [I-D.klyus-supa-value-
proposition] were:
Maxim Klyus, Ed. , NetCracker
John Strassner, Ed. , Huawei Technologies
Will(Shucheng) Liu, Huawei Technologies
Georgios Karagiannis, Huawei Technologies
Jun Bi, Tsinghua University
The initial draft of this document merged one document, and this
section lists the acknowledgements from it.
From "Problem Statement for Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions
(SUPA)" [I-D.karagiannis-supa-problem-statement]
The authors of this draft would like to thank the following persons
for the provided valuable feedback and contributions: Diego Lopez,
Spencer Dawkins, Jun Bi, Xing Li, Chongfeng Xie, Benoit Claise, Ian
Farrer, Marc Blancet, Zhen Cao, Hosnieh Rafiee, Mehmet Ersue, Simon
Perreault, Fernando Gont, Jose Saldana, Tom Taylor, Kostas
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Pentikousis, Juergen Schoenwaelder, John Strassner, Eric Voit, Scott
O. Bradner, Marco Liebsch, Scott Cadzow, Marie-Jose Montpetit. Tina
Tsou, Will Liu and Jean-Francois Tremblay contributed to an early
version of this draft.
The authors of "Problem Statement for Simplified Use of Policy
Abstractions (SUPA)" [I-D.karagiannis-supa-problem-statement] were:
Georgios Karagiannis, Huawei Technologies
Qiong Sun, China Telecom
Luis M. Contreras, Telefonica
Parviz Yegani, Juniper
John Strassner, Huawei Technologies
Jun Bi, Tsinghua University
From "The Framework of Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions (SUPA)"
[I-D.zhou-supa-framework]
The authors of this draft would like to thank the following persons
for the provided valuable feedback: Diego Lopez, Jose Saldana,
Spencer Dawkins, Jun Bi, Xing Li, Chongfeng Xie, Benoit Claise, Ian
Farrer, Marc Blancet, Zhen Cao, Hosnieh Rafiee, Mehmet Ersue, Mohamed
Boucadair, Jean Francois Tremblay, Tom Taylor, Tina Tsou, Georgios
Karagiannis, John Strassner, Raghav Rao, Jing Huang.
The authors of "The Framework of Simplified Use of Policy
Abstractions (SUPA)" [I-D.zhou-supa-framework] were:
Cathy Zhou, Huawei Technologies
Luis M. Contreras, Telefonica
Qiong Sun, China Telecom
Parviz Yegani, Juniper
8. References
8.1. Normative References
[RFC2119] Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>.
8.2. Informative References
[I-D.cheng-supa-applicability]
Cheng, Y., Liu, D., Fu, B., Zhang, D., and N. Vadrevu,
"Applicability of SUPA", draft-cheng-supa-applicability-01
(work in progress), March 2017.
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[I-D.ietf-supa-generic-policy-data-model]
Halpern, J. and J. Strassner, "Generic Policy Data Model
for Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions (SUPA)", draft-
ietf-supa-generic-policy-data-model-04 (work in progress),
June 2017.
[I-D.ietf-supa-generic-policy-info-model]
Strassner, J., Halpern, J., and S. Meer, "Generic Policy
Information Model for Simplified Use of Policy
Abstractions (SUPA)", draft-ietf-supa-generic-policy-info-
model-03 (work in progress), May 2017.
[I-D.karagiannis-supa-problem-statement]
Karagiannis, G., Strassner, J., Qiong, Q., Contreras, L.,
Yegani, P., and J. Bi, "Problem Statement for Simplified
Use of Policy Abstractions (SUPA)", draft-karagiannis-
supa-problem-statement-07 (work in progress), June 2015.
[I-D.klyus-supa-value-proposition]
Klyus, M., Strassner, J., (Will), S., Karagiannis, G., and
J. Bi, "SUPA Value Proposition", draft-klyus-supa-value-
proposition-00 (work in progress), March 2016.
[I-D.zhou-supa-framework]
Zhou, C., Contreras, L., Qiong, Q., and P. Yegani, "The
Framework of Simplified Use of Policy Abstractions
(SUPA)", draft-zhou-supa-framework-02 (work in progress),
May 2015.
[RFC3198] Westerinen, A., Schnizlein, J., Strassner, J., Scherling,
M., Quinn, B., Herzog, S., Huynh, A., Carlson, M., Perry,
J., and S. Waldbusser, "Terminology for Policy-Based
Management", RFC 3198, DOI 10.17487/RFC3198, November
2001, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3198>.
[RFC3444] Pras, A. and J. Schoenwaelder, "On the Difference between
Information Models and Data Models", RFC 3444,
DOI 10.17487/RFC3444, January 2003,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3444>.
[RFC6020] Bjorklund, M., Ed., "YANG - A Data Modeling Language for
the Network Configuration Protocol (NETCONF)", RFC 6020,
DOI 10.17487/RFC6020, October 2010,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6020>.
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[RFC7285] Alimi, R., Ed., Penno, R., Ed., Yang, Y., Ed., Kiesel, S.,
Previdi, S., Roome, W., Shalunov, S., and R. Woundy,
"Application-Layer Traffic Optimization (ALTO) Protocol",
RFC 7285, DOI 10.17487/RFC7285, September 2014,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7285>.
[RFC7950] Bjorklund, M., Ed., "The YANG 1.1 Data Modeling Language",
RFC 7950, DOI 10.17487/RFC7950, August 2016,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7950>.
Authors' Addresses
Will(Shucheng) Liu
Huawei Technologies
Bantian, Longgang District
Shenzhen 518129
P.R. China
Email: liushucheng@huawei.com
Chongfeng Xie
China Telecom Beijing Research Institute
China Telecom Information Technology Innovation Park
Beijing 102209
P.R. China
Email: xiechf.bri@chinatelecom.cn
John Strassner
Huawei Technologies
2330 Central Expressway
Santa Clara 95138
CA USA
Email: john.sc.strassner@huawei.com
Georgios Karagiannis
Huawei Technologies
Hansaallee 205
Dusseldorf 40549
Germany
Email: Georgios.Karagiannis@huawei.com
Liu, et al. Expires January 18, 2018 [Page 15]
Internet-Draft SUPA Policy-based Management Framework July 2017
Maxim Klyus
NetCracker
Kozhevnicheskaya str.,7 Bldg. #1
Moscow
Russia
Email: klyus@netcracker.com
Jun Bi
Tsinghua University
Network Research Center, Tsinghua University
Beijing 100084
P.R. China
Email: junbi@tsinghua.edu.cn
Liu, et al. Expires January 18, 2018 [Page 16]
