Network Working Group S. Nandakumar
Internet-Draft Cisco
Intended status: Informational C. Jennings
Expires: 14 September 2023 cisco
13 March 2023
Media Over QUIC Media and Security Architecture
draft-nandakumar-moq-arch-00
Abstract
This document defines the media and security architecture for Media
Over QUIC, a protocol suite intended to run in browsers and other
non-browser endpoints and support unified architecture and protocol
for data delivery that enables a wide range of media applications
with different resiliency and latency needs without compromising the
scalability and cost effectiveness associated with content delivery
networks.
Note to readers: This document as it stands might not reflect
accurately all decisions that are in active discussions in the WG,
but it lays out a foundation for expected architectural requirements.
The specification will be updated based on the decision made in the
WG.
Status of This Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute
working documents as Internet-Drafts. The list of current Internet-
Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.
Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."
This Internet-Draft will expire on 14 September 2023.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2023 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 1]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/
license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document.
Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
and restrictions with respect to this document. Code Components
extracted from this document must include Simplified BSD License text
as described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are
provided without warranty as described in the Simplified BSD License.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1. Advantages of MoQ Media Transport Protocol . . . . . . . 4
2. Entity Roles and Trust Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1. Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.1. Emitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.2. Publisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3. Subscriber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.4. Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.5. Catalog Maker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.6. Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.7. Key Manager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2. Media Transformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3. Provider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3. Reference Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.1. Streaming Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2. Interactive/Conferencing Architectures . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Tracks, Objects and Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6. Relays and Scalability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7. MoQ Transport Usage Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.1. Catalog Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.2. MOQ Video Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.3. MoQ Audio Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7.4. MOQ Game Moves Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9. Protocol Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9.1. HTTP/3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9.2. QUIC Streams and Datagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.3. QUIC Congestion Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Appendix A. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 2]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
1. Introduction
Recently new use cases have emerged requiring higher scalability of
delivery for interactive realtime applications and much lower latency
for streaming applications and a combination thereof. On one side
are use cases such as normal web conferences wanting to distribute
out to millions of viewers and allow viewers to instantly move to
being a presenter. On the other side are uses cases such as
streaming a soccer game to millions of people including people in the
stadium watching the game live. Viewers watching an e-sports event
want to be able to comment with minimal latency to ensure the
interactivity aspects between what different viewers are seeing is
preserved. All of these uses cases push towards latencies that are
in the order of 100ms over the natural latency the network causes.
Interactive realtime applications, such as web conferencing systems,
require ultra low latency (< 150ms) delivery. Such applications
create their own application specific delivery network over which
latency requirements can be met. Realtime transport protocols such
as RTP over UDP provide the basic elements needed for realtime
communication, both contribution and distribution, while leaving
aspects such as resiliency and congestion control to be provided by
each application. On the other hand, media streaming applications
are much more tolerant to latency and require highly scalable media
distribution. Such applications leverage existing CDN networks, used
for optimizing web delivery, to distribute media. Streaming
protocols such as HLS and MPEG-DASH operates on top of HTTP and gets
transport-level resiliency and congestion control provided by TCP.
The architecture defines and uses a unified media delivery protocol
that is based on a publish/subscribe metaphor where client endpoints
publish and subscribe to named objects that is sent to, and received
from relays, that forms an overlay delivery network similar to what
CDN provides today. Objects are named such that it is unique for the
relay/delivery network and scoped to an application.
The MoQ transport protocol provides services based on application
requirements (with the support of underlying transport, where
necessary) such as estimation of available bandwidth, resiliency,
congestion control and prioritization of data delivery based on data
lifetime and importance of data. It is designed to be NAT and
firewall traversal friendly and can be fronted with load balancers.
In a sample deployment, Relays can be thought of as arranged in a
logical tree (as shown below) where, for a given application, there
is an origin Relay at root of the tree that controls the namespace
for the objects. Publish messages are sent towards the root of the
tree and down the path of any subscribers to that named object. It
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 3]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
is designed to make it easy to implement relays so that fail over
could happen between relays with minimal impact to the clients and
relays can redirect a client to a different relay.
┌────────────┐
│ │
│ ▼
│ ┌────────┐
│ ▬ ▬▶│Relay-0 │ ◀▬▬ ▬▬ ▬▮
pub │ ▮ │ Orgin ├┐ ▮
│ ▮ └────────┘│ ▮
│ ▮ sub │ ▮ sub
│ ▮ pub │ ▮
│ ▮ │ ▮
┌───────▮┐ ◀▬▮ │ ┌─────▮──┐
┌──▶│ Relay-1│ ▮ └─▶│ Relay-2│◀▮▮
│ └─────┬──┘ ▮ ▲──┬────┤ ▮
pub │ │ ▮ sub sub ▮ │ │ ▮ sub
│ pub│ ▮ ▮ │pub ▼ ▮
┌┴─────┐ │ ┌────▮─┐ ┌─────▮┐ │ ┌───▮──┐
│Alice │ └▶│ Bob │ │ Carl │◀┘ │Derek │
└──────┘ └──────┘ └──────┘ └──────┘
Figure 1: Delivery Tree
The design supports sending named objects between a set of
participants in a game or video call with under a hundred
milliseconds of latency and meets the needs of conferencing systems.
The design can also be used for large scale streaming to millions of
participants with latency ranging from a few seconds to under a
hundred milliseconds based on applications needs.
1.1. Advantages of MoQ Media Transport Protocol
The architecture for MoQ uses similar concepts and delivery
mechanisms to those used by streaming standards such as HLS and MPEG-
DASH. Specifically the use of a CDN-like delivery network, the use
of named objects and the receiver-triggered media/data delivery.
However, there are fundamental characteristics that the MoQ Transport
provides to enable ultra low latency delivery for interactive
applications such as conferencing and gaming.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 4]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
* To support low latency the granularity of the delivered objects,
in terms of time duration, need to be quite small making it
complicated for clients to request each object individually. MoQ
Transport protocol uses a publish and subscription semantic to
simplify and speed object delivery for low latency applications.
For latency-tolerant applications, larger granularity of data, aka
group of objects, can be individually requested and delivered
without instantiating state in the backend.
* Some realtime applications operating in ultra low latency mode
require objects delivered as and when they are available without
having to wait for previous objects due to network loss or out of
order network delivery. Pipelining of object delivery with
delivering media bitstream as and when they appear is supported,
for this purpose.
* Published objects have associated max-age that specifies the
validity of such objects. max-age influences relay's drop
decisions and can also be used by the underlying QUIC transport to
cease retransmissions associated with the named object.
* Unlike traditional streaming architectures where media
contribution and media distribution are treated differently, MoQ
Transport can be used for both object contribution/publishing and
distribution/subscribing as the split does not exist for
interactive communications.
* "Aggregation of subscriptions" at the relay functions allows
"short-circuited" delivery of published objects when there is a
match at a given relay function. This further enables local error
recovery where applicable.
* Publishers can associate a priority with objects. These can help
the delivery network and the subscribers to make decisions about
resiliency, latency, drops etc. Priorities can be used to set
relative importance between different qualities for layered video
encoding, for example.
* MoQ Transport is designed so that objects are encrypted end-to-end
and will pass transparently through the delivery network. Any
information required by the delivery network, will be included as
part of the metadata that is accessible to the delivery network
for further processing as appropriate.
2. Entity Roles and Trust Model
This section specifies various roles that make up an application
architecture using MoQ Transport.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 5]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
2.1. Roles
This section defines various roles that can exist within the MoQ
Architecture and the associated trust model. A given MoQ entity
(physical or logic component) can play one or more roles depending on
their utility within the architecture.
2.1.1. Emitter
Entities that perform Emitter role are trusted with E2E encryption
keys for the media and operate on one or more uncompressed and
unencrypted media. They compress and possibly encrypt and transmit
over one or more Data Streams.
Each such encoded and/or encrypted stream corresponds to a Track
within the MoQ transport protocol.
2.1.2. Publisher
Entities with Publisher role publish MoQ Objects belonging to a given
track using the MoQ Transport Protocol.
2.1.3. Subscriber
Entities with Subscribe role subscribe to receive MoQ Objects
corresponding to a track using the MoQ Transport Protocol.
2.1.4. Relay
Entities performing the Relay role are not trusted with E2E
encryption keys.
Entities performing Relay role implement store and forward behavior.
Such entities receives subscriptions and publishes data to the other
endpoints that have subscribed to the named data. They may cache the
data as well for optimizing the delivery experience. Since these
entities are not trusted with the E2E keys, they cannot access
unencrypted MoQ Object Payload, however they are allowed to access
the MoQ Object Header.
2.1.5. Catalog Maker
Entities performing Catalog Maker role compose or aggregate tracks
from multiple emissions to form a new emission. Akin to the role of
entities with the Relay role, Catalog Maker role entities are not
trusted with the E2E keys and they perform publisher and subscriber
roles. Catalog Makers are allowed to publish tracks with a new name
without changing the media content of the received tracks.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 6]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
2.1.6. Receiver
Entities performing the Receiver role are trusted with E2E keys and
can transform the Encrypted Stream into Encoded Stream and decode the
encoded stream to source stream for further consumptions
2.1.7. Key Manager
Entities with Key Manager role are responsbile for setting up the
needed protocol machinery for distributing keys needed for end to end
encryption. Key Manager role doesn't provide access to the E2E
encryption keys.
2.2. Media Transformer
Entities with Media Transformer roles are trusted with E2E encryption
keys and thus have access to the media. They combine the following
roles - Subscriber, Receiver, Emitter and publisher. They subscribe
to media tracks, decrypt and transform the received media, encrypt
and publish the transformed media as new media tracks.
2.3. Provider
TODO
3. Reference Architecture
Below picture depicts reference architecture involving entities
playing various roles.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 7]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
┌──────────────────┐
┌ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─│ Provider │─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ┐
└──────────────────┘
│ │
┌─────────────────┐
│ ┌ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─│ Key Manager ├ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ─ ┐ │
└─────────────────┘
│ │ │ │
│ │ │ │
┌───────────────┐ ┌───────────────┐
│ │ │ Catalog │ │ Media │ │ │
│ Maker │─ ─ ─│ Transformer │
│ │ └───────┬───────┘ └───────┬───────┘ │ │
│ │
│ │ │ │ │ │
│ │
.─┴────┴. ┌───┴─────┐ ┌─────┴───┐ .┴──┴───.
╱ ╲ ┌┴────────┐│────────┬┴────────┐│ ╱ ╲
( Emitters ──────────▶│ Relay ├┘ │ Relay ├┘───────────▶( Receivers )
`. ,' └──────┬──┘ └─────┬───┘ `. ,'
`─────' │ ┌─────────┐ │ Tracks `─────'
Tracks │ ┌┴────────┐│ │
└──│ Relay ├┴────┘
└─────────┘
4. Overview
4.1. Streaming Architectures
Streaming scenarios typically separate "content ingestion" and
"content distribution". In a reference live streaming architecture
shown below, the emitter live streams on or more tracks as part of
the application operated under a provider domain, which gets
eventually distributed to multiple clients by some form of
distribution server operating under the provider domain, over a
content distribution network.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 8]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
+-------------+
|Relay |
+----------------> |Orgin:tw.com |-----+
| +-------------+ |
| ^ |
|pub:tw.com/ch22/audio-1 | |
|pub:tw.com/ch22/audio-2 | |
| sub:tw.com/ch22/audio-1 | |
| | |pub:tw.com/ch22/audio-1
| | v
+-----------+ +----------+
| Emitter | | Receiver |
+-----------+ +----------+
The above picture shows MoQ Transport based delivery network for an
hypothetical streaming architecture rooted at the Origin Relay, akin
to Ingest server/Distribution Server (for the domain tw.com). In
this architecture, the media contribution is done by publishing named
tracks for audio corresponding to channel-22, at 2 different
qualities, to the ingest server at the Origin Relay. Media
consumption happens via subscribes sent to the Origin Relay to the
name (tw.com/ch22/audio-1) to receive the right quality track.
4.2. Interactive/Conferencing Architectures
A interactive conference typically works with the expected operating
glass-to-glass latency to be around 200ms and is made up of
multiplicity of participant with varying capabilities and operating
under varying network conditions.
A typical conferencing session comprises of:
* Multiple emitters, publishing on multiple tracks (audio, video
tracks and at different qualities)
* A media switch, sourcing tracks that represent a subset of tracks
from across all the emitters. Such subset may represent tracks
representing top 5 speakers at higher qualities and lot of other
tracks for rest of the emitters at lower qualities.
* Multiple receivers, with varied receiving capacity (bandwidth
limited), subscribing to subset of the tracks
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 9]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
+--------+
+----> | SFU | <----------------+
| +--------+ |
| ^ | |sub:alice-low
pub:alice-hi | pub:alice-hi |sub:alice-hi
pub:alice-low | pub:alice-low |
| sub:alice-low | |
| | | |
+---------+ | +------------------------+
+------>| Relay-A | +->| Relay-B |
| +---------+ +------------------------+
| | ^ | ^ | ^
pub1:alice-hi| | | | | |
pub2:alice-low | | | | |
| | | | | | |
| pub:alice-low pub:alice-hi,low pub:alice-hi,low
| | | | | | |
| | sub:alice-low | sub:alice.. | sub:alice..
| v | v | v |
+------+ +---+ +----+ +-----+
| Alice| |Bob| |Carl| |Derek|
+------+ +---+ +----+ +-----+
The above picture shows a MoQ Transport based media delivery tree
formed with multiple relays in the network. The example has 4
participants with Alice being the publisher and rest being the
subscribers. Alice's is capable of publishing video streams at 2
qualities identified by their appropriate names. Bob subscribes to a
low resolution video track from alice, whereas Carl/Derek subscribe
to all the qualities of video feed published by Alice. All the
subscribes are sent to the Origin Relay and are saved at the on-path
Relays, this allowing for "short-circuited" delivery of published
data at the relays. In the above example, Bob gets Alice's published
data directly from Relay-A instead of hair pinning from the Origin
Relay. Carl and Derek, however get their video stream relayed from
Alice via Origin Relay and Relay-B.
5. Tracks, Objects and Groups
Tracks form the central concept within the MoQ Transport protocol for
delivering media. A Track identifies the namespace and the
authorization scope under which MoQTransport objects are delivered.
A track is a transform of a uncompressed media using a specific
encoding process, a set of parameters for that encoding, and possibly
an encryption process.
The MoQTransport is designed to transport tracks.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 10]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
The binary content of a track is composed of a sequence of objects.
An Object is the smallest unit that makes sense to decode and may not
be independently decodable. An Object MUST belong to a group.
Objects MUST be uniquely identifiable within the MoQ delivery system.
Objects carry associated header/metadata containing priority, time to
live, and other information aiding the caching/forwarding decision at
the Relays. Objects MAY be optionally cached at Relays. The content
of the Objects are opaque to Relays and delivered on the strict
priority order.
An Object MUST belong to a group. Groups are composition of objects
and the objects within the group carry the necessary dependency
information needed to process the objects in the group.
A typical example would be a group of pictures/video frames or group
of audio samples that represent synchronization point in the video
conferencing example.
6. Relays and Scalability
The Relays play an important role for enabling low latency media
delivery within the MoQ architecture. This specification allows for
a delivery protocol based on a publish/subscribe metaphor where some
endpoints, called publishers, publish media objects and some
endpoints, called subscribers, consume those media objects. Some
relays can leverage this publish/subscribe metaphor to form an
overlay delivery network similar/in-parallel to what CDN provides
today. While this type of overlay is expected to be a major
application of relays, other types of relays can also be defined to
offer various types of services.
Relays provide several benefits including
* Scalability – (U+2013) Relays provide the fan-out necessary to
scale up streams to production levels (millions) of concurrent
subscribers.
* Reliability - relays can improve the overall reliability of the
delivery system by providing alternate paths for routing content.
* Performance – (U+2013) Relays are usually positioned as close to
the edge of a network as possible and are well-connected to each
other and to the Origin via high capacity managed networks. This
topography minimizes the RTT over the unmanaged last mile to the
end-user, improving the latency and throughput compared to the
client connecting directly to the origin.'
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 11]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
* Security – (U+2013) Relays act to shield the origin from DDOS and
other
In order to keep the latencies low, Relays don't wait until the
entire object is received but rather forward the bitstream/fragments
as they are received to downstream subscribers.
7. MoQ Transport Usage Patterns
This section explains usage patterns that can be used to build
applications on top of MoQ Transport
7.1. Catalog Objects
TODO
7.2. MOQ Video Objects
Most video applications would use the data identifier component to
identity the video stream, as well as the encoding point such as
resolution and bitrate. Each independently decodable set of frames
would go in a single group, and each frame inside that group would go
in a separate named object inside the group. This allows an
application to receive a given encoding of the video by subscribing
just to the data identifier component of the Name with a wildcard for
group and object IDs.
This also allows a subscription to get all the frames in the current
group if it joins later, or wait until the next group before starting
to get data, based on the subscription options. Changing to a
different bitrate or resolution would use a new subscription to the
appropriate Name.
The QUIC transport that QuicR is running on provides the congestion
control but the application can see what objects are received and
determine if it should change it's subscription to a different
bitrate data identifier component.
Today's video is often encoded with I-frames at a fixed interval but
this can result in pulsing video quality. Future system may want to
insert I-frames at each change of scene resulting in groups with a
variable number of frames. QuicR easily supports that.
7.3. MoQ Audio Objects
TODO
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 12]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
7.4. MOQ Game Moves Objects
Some games send out a base set of state information then incremental
deltas to it. Each time a new base set is sent, a new group can be
formed and each increment change as an Object in the group. When new
players join, they can subscribe to sync up to the latest state by
subscribing to the current group and the incremental changes that
follow.
8. Security Considerations
The links between Relay and other Relays or Clients can be encrypted,
however, this does not protect the content from Relays. To mitigate
this, all the objects need to be end-to-end encrypted with a keying
mechanism outside the scope of this protocol. For may applications,
simply getting the keys over HTTPS for a particular object/group from
the origin server will be adequate. For other applicants keying
based on MLS may be more appropriate. Many applications can leverage
the existing key managed schemes used in HLS and DASH for DRM
protected content.
Relays reachable on the Internet are assumed to have a burstiness
relationship with the Origin and the protocol provides a way to
verify that any data moved is on behalf of a given Origin.
Relays in a local network may choose to process content for any
Origin but since only local users can access them, there is a way to
manage which applications use them.
Subscriptions need to be refreshed at least every 5 seconds to ensure
liveness and consent for the client to continue receiving data.
9. Protocol Design Considerations
9.1. HTTP/3
It is tempting to base this on HTTP but there are a few high level
architectural mismatches. HTTP is largely designed for a stateless
server in a client server architecture. The whole concept of the
PUB/SUB is that the relays are _not_ stateless and keep the
subscription information and this is what allows for low latency and
high throughput on the relays.
In today's CDN, the CDN nodes end up faking the credentials of the
origin server and this limits how and where they can be deployed. A
design with explicitly designed relays that do not need to do this,
while still assuming an end-to-end encrypted model so the relays did
not have access to the content makes for a better design.
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 13]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
It would be possible to start with something that looked like HTTP as
the protocol between the relays with special conventions for
wildcards in URLs of a GET and ways to stream non final responses for
any responses perhaps using something like multipart MIME. However,
most of the existing code and logic for HTTP would not really be
usable with the low latency streaming of data. It is probably much
simpler and more scalable to simply define a PUB/SUB protocol
directly on top of QUIC.
9.2. QUIC Streams and Datagrams
There are pro and cons to mapping object transport on top of streams
or on top of QUIC datagrams. The working group would need to sort
this out and consider the possibility of using both for different
types of data and if there should be support for a semi-reliable
transport of data. Some objects, for example the manifest
{{#manifest} would always want to be received in a reliable way while
other objects may have to be realtime.
9.3. QUIC Congestion Control
The basic idea in BBR of speeding up to probe then slowing down to
drain the queue build up caused during probe can work fine with real
time applications. However, the current implementations in QUIC do
not appear optimized for real-time applications, resulting in higher
jitter (under certain conditions). In order to avoid play-out drops,
the jitter buffers add latency to compensate for this. Probing for
the RTT has been one of the phases that causes particular problems
for this. To reduce the latency of QUIC, this work should coordinate
with the QUIC working group to have the QUIC working group develop
congestion control optimizations for low latency use of QUIC.
Appendix A. Acknowledgments
TODO
Authors' Addresses
Suhas Nandakumar
Cisco
Email: snandaku@cisco.com
Cullen Jennings
cisco
Canada
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 14]
Internet-Draft MoQ Architecture March 2023
Email: fluffy@iii.ca
Nandakumar & Jennings Expires 14 September 2023 [Page 15]