MPLS Working Group                                        I. Busi (Ed)
Internet Draft                                          Alcatel-Lucent
Intended status: Informational
                                                 B. Niven-Jenkins (Ed)
                                                                    BT

Expires: September 2009                                 March 16, 2009



                    MPLS-TP OAM Framework and Overview
                  draft-busi-mpls-tp-oam-framework-02.txt


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Abstract

   Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Transport Profile (MPLS-TP) is
   based on a profile of the MPLS and pseudowire (PW) procedures as
   specified in the MPLS Traffic Engineering (MPLS-TE), pseudowire (PW)
   and multi-segment PW (MS-PW) architectures complemented with
   additional Operations, Administration and Maintenance (OAM)
   procedures for fault, performance and protection-switching management
   for packet transport applications that do not rely on the presence of
   a control plane.

   This document provides a framework that supports a comprehensive set
   of OAM procedures that fulfills the MPLS-TP OAM requirements [11].

Table of Contents


   1. Introduction.................................................3
      1.1. Contributing Authors....................................3
   2. Conventions used in this document............................3
      2.1. Terminology.............................................3
      2.2. Definitions.............................................4
   3. Functional Components........................................5
      3.1. Maintenance Entity......................................6
      3.2. Maintenance End Points (MEPs)...........................7
      3.3. Maintenance Intermediate Points (MIPs)..................8
      3.4. Server MEPs.............................................9
   4. Reference Model.............................................10
      4.1. MPLS-TP Section Monitoring.............................12
      4.2. MPLS-TP LSP End-to-End Monitoring......................13
      4.3. MPLS-TP LSP Tandem Connection Monitoring...............14
      4.4. MPLS-TP PW Monitoring..................................16
      4.5. MPLS-TP MS-PW Tandem Connection Monitoring.............16
   5. OAM Functions for pro-active monitoring.....................17
      5.1. Continuity Check and Connectivity Verification.........17
         5.1.1. Applications for proactive CC & CV function.......20
      5.2. Remote Defect Indication...............................20
         5.2.1. Configuration considerations......................21
         5.2.2. Applications for Remote Defect Indication.........21
      5.3. Alarm Suppression......................................21
      5.4. Lock Indication........................................23
      5.5. Packet Loss Measurement................................23
      5.6. Client Signal Fail.....................................23
   6. OAM Functions for on-demand monitoring......................23
      6.1. Continuity Check and Connectivity Verification.........23
         6.1.1. Configuration considerations......................24
      6.2. Packet Loss Measurement................................24


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      6.3. Diagnostic Test........................................24
      6.4. Trace routing..........................................24
      6.5. Packet Delay Measurement...............................25
   7. OAM Protocols Overview......................................25
   8. Security Considerations.....................................25
   9. IANA Considerations.........................................25
   10. Acknowledgments............................................25
   11. References.................................................26
      11.1. Normative References..................................26
      11.2. Informative References................................26

1. Introduction

   As noted in the MPLS-TP framework [8], the overall architecture of
   MPLS-TP is based on a profile of the MPLS-TE and (MS-)PW
   architectures defined in RFC 3031 [2], RFC 3985 [5] and [6]
   complemented with additional OAM procedures for fault, performance
   and protection-switching management for packet transport applications
   that do not rely on the presence of a control plane.

   In line with [12], existing MPLS OAM mechanisms will be used wherever
   possible and extensions or new OAM mechanisms will be defined only
   where existing mechanisms are not sufficient to meet the
   requirements.

   The MPLS-TP OAM framework provides a comprehensive set of OAM
   procedures while satisfying the MPLS-TP OAM requirements [11]. In
   this regard, it is similar to existing SONET/SDH and OTH OAM
   mechanisms (e.g. [14]).

1.1. Contributing Authors

   Italo Busi, Ben Niven-Jenkins, Annamaria Fulignoli, Enrique
   Hernandez-Valencia, Lieven Levrau, Dinesh Mohan, Vincenzo Sestito,
   Nurit Sprecher, Huub van Helvoort, Martin Vigoureux, Yaacov
   Weingarten, Rolf Winter

2. Conventions used in this document

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
   document are to be interpreted as described in RFC-2119 [1].

2.1. Terminology

   DBN  Domain Border Node



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   LME  LSP Maintenance Entity

   LTCME LSP Tandem Connection Maintenance Entity

   [Editor's note - Difference or similarity between tandem connection
   monitoring (TCM)_and Path Segment Tunnel (PST) need to be defined and
   agreed]

   ME   Maintenance Entity

   [Editor's note - There is a need to define whether to support OAM on
   p2mp transport path there is a need to introduce the MEG concept]

   MEP  Maintenance End Point

   MIP  Maintenance Intermediate Point

   PME  PW Maintenance Entity

   PTCME PW Tandem Connection Maintenance Entity

   SME  Section Maintenance Entity

2.2. Definitions

   Concatenated Segment: see [10]

   Co-routed bidirectional path: see [10]

   Domain Border Node: see [13]

   Layer network: see [10]

   Section: see [10]

   OAM domain: A domain, as defined in [10], whose entities are grouped
   for the purpose of keeping the OAM confined within that domain.

   Note - within the rest of this document the term "domain" is used to
   indicate an "OAM domain"

   OAM flow: An OAM flow is a traffic flow between a pair of MEPs or a
   MEP and a MIP that is used to monitor a ME [Editor's note - a MEG
   depending on what we decide for this point]. The OAM flow is
   associated to a unique ME and contains the OAM monitoring, signalling
   and notification messages necessary to monitor and maintain that ME.
   The exact mix of message types in an OAM flow will be dependent on


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   the technology being monitored and the exact deployment scenario of
   that technology (e.g. some deployments may proactively monitor the
   connectivity of all transport paths whereas other deployments may
   only reactively monitor transport paths)

   MIP: A MIP terminates and processes OAM messages and generates OAM
   messages in reaction to received OAM messages.


   MEP Source: A MEP acts as MEP source for the OAM flow that it
   originates and inserts into its associated ME.

   MEP Sink: A MEP acts as a MEP sink for the OAM flow that it
   terminates and processes from it associated ME.

   OAM Message: An OAM information element that performs some OAM
   functionality (e.g. continuity and connectivity verification)

   OAM Packet: A packet that carries one or more OAM messages (i.e. OAM
   information elements).

   Path: See Transport Path

   Signal Fail: A condition when the data associated with a transport
   path has failed in the sense that a defect condition (not being a
   degraded defect) is detected.

   Segment: see [10]

   Sublayer: see [10]

   Tandem Connection: see [10]

   Transport Path: see [10]

   Unidirectional path: see [10]

3. Functional Components

   MPLS defines the use of Label Switched Paths (LSPs) and Pseudowires
   (PWs)([2], [5] and [7]) that are used to connect service end points.
   MPLS-TP builds on this framework the need to transport service
   traffic, based on certain performance and quality measurements.  In
   order to verify and maintain these performance and quality
   measurements, we need to use the OAM functionality not only on an
   transport paths (e.g. LSP or MS-PW), but also on arbitrary parts of



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   transport paths, defined as Tandem Connections in [10], between any
   two arbitrary points along a path.

   MPLS-TP OAM operates in the context of Maintenance Entities (MEs).

   A Maintenance Entity can be viewed as the association of two (or
   more) Maintenance End Points (MEPs), see below. The MEPs that form an
   ME are configured and managed to limit the scope of an OAM flow
   within the ME the MEPs belong to.

   Each MEP resides at the boundaries of the ME that they are part of.
   An ME may also include a set of zero or more Maintenance Intermediate
   Points (MIPs), which reside within the Maintenance Entity, between
   the MEPs.

   A MEP is capable of initiating and terminating OAM messages for fault
   management and performance monitoring.

   A MIP is capable of terminating OAM messages but it generates OAM
   messages only in reaction to received OAM messages.

   This functional model defines the relationships between all OAM
   entities from a maintenance perspective, to allow each Maintenance
   Entity to monitor and manage the layer network under its
   responsibility and easily localize problems.

   MEPs and MIPs are associated with a particular Maintenance Entity.

   When a control plane is not present, the management plane configures
   MEPs and MIPs. Otherwise they can be configured either by the
   management plane or by the control plane.

   [Editor's note - Need to align the two paragraphs above with the
   outcome of the on-going discussion on the mailing list regarding the
   usage of control plane to configure OAM]

3.1. Maintenance Entity

   A Maintenance Entity can be viewed as the association of two (or
   more) Maintenance End Points (MEPs). An example of an ME with more
   than two MEPs is a point-to-multipoint ME monitoring a point-to-
   multipoint transport path (or point-to-multipoint tandem connection).
   The MEPs that form an ME should be configured and managed to limit
   the OAM responsibilities of an OAM flow within a network or sub-
   network, or a transport path or segment, in the specific layer
   network that is being monitored and managed. Any maintenance point in
   between MEPs is a Maintenance Intermediate Points (MIP).


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   A Maintenance Entity may be defined to monitor and manage
   unidirectional point-to-point or point-to-multipoint transport paths
   or tandem connections, or co-routed bidirectional point-to-point
   transport paths and tandem connections in an MPLS-TP layer network.

   MPLS-TP OAM functions are designed to be applied either on an end-to-
   end basis, e.g., between the LERs of a given LSP or T-PEs of a given
   PW, or on a per tandem connection basis, e.g., between any LER/LSR of
   a given LSP or any T-PE/S-PE of a given PW.

   The end points of a tandem connection are MEPs because the tandem
   connection is by definition a Maintenance Entity.

   Therefore, in the context of MPLS-TP LSP or PW Maintenance Entity
   (defined below) LERs and T-PEs can be MEPs while LSRs and S-PEs may
   be MIPs. In the case of Tandem Connection Maintenance Entity (defined
   below), LSRs and S-PEs can be either MEPs or MIPs.

   The following properties apply to all MPLS-TP MEs:

   o They can be nested but not overlapped, e.g. a ME may cover a
      segment or a concatenated segment of another ME, and may also
      include the forwarding engine(s) of the node(s) at the edge(s) of
      the segment or concatenated segment, but all its MEPs and MIPs are
      no longer part of the encompassing ME. It is possible that MEPs of
      nested MEs reside on a single node.

   o Each OAM flow is associated with a single Maintenance Entity.

   o OAM packets are subject to the same forwarding treatment (e.g.
      fate share) as the data traffic, but they can be distinguished
      from the data traffic using the GAL and ACH constructs [9] for LSP
      and the ACH construct [6] [9] for (MS-)PW.

3.2. Maintenance End Points (MEPs)

   Maintenance End Points (MEPs) are the end points of a ME.  MEPs are
   responsible for activating and controlling all of the OAM
   functionality for the ME. A MEP may initiate an OAM packet to be
   transferred to its corresponding MEP, or to an intermediate MIP that
   is part of the ME.

   MEPs prevent OAM packets corresponding to a ME from leaking outside
   that ME:





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   o A MEP sink terminates all the OAM packets that it receives
      corresponding to its ME and does not forward them further along
      the path. If the pro-active CC&CV OAM tool detects an unintended
      connectivity, all traffic on the path is blocked (i.e. all
      received packets are dropped, including user-data packets).

   o A MEP source tunnels all the OAM packets that it receives,
      upstream from the associated ME, via label stacking. These packets
      are not processed within the ME as they belong to another ME.

   [Editor's - Need to rephrase the bullet above to clarify what it
   actually means]

   MPLS-TP MEP notifies a fault indication to the MPLS-TP client layer
   network.

   A MEP of a tandem connection is not necessarily coincident with the
   termination of the MPLS-TP transport path (LSP or PW), though it can
   monitor it for failures or performance degradation (e.g. count
   packets) within the boundary of the tandem connection.

   [Editor's note - The MEP of a TCM monitors the transport paths'
   connectivity within the scope of the TCM. This means that failures or
   performance degradations within the TCM are detected by the TCM MEP
   while failures or performance degradations outside the TCM are not
   detected by the TCM MEP.

   Is the text above sufficient to explain this concept?]

   A MEP of an MPLS-TP transport path coincides with transport path
   termination and monitors it for failures or performance degradation
   on an end-to-end scope (e.g. count packets). Note that both MEP
   source and MEP sink coincide with transport paths' source and sink
   terminations.

   [Editor's note - Add some text regarding MEP identification as well
   as about what a MEP should do if it receives an unexpected OAM
   packet]

3.3. Maintenance Intermediate Points (MIPs)

   A Maintenance Intermediate Point (MIP) is a point between the two
   MEPs in an ME that is capable of reacting to some OAM packets and
   forwarding all the other OAM packets while ensuring fate sharing with
   data plane packets.  A MIP belongs to only one ME.




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   A MIP does not initiate unsolicited OAM packets, but may be addressed
   by OAM packets initiated by one of the MEPs of the ME. A MIP can
   generate OAM packets only in response to OAM packets that are sent on
   the ME it belongs to.

   [Editor's note - It is needed to describe about how this is achieved
   (e.g. TTL expiry). Is this description in the scope of this
   document?]

   MIPs are unaware of any OAM flows running between MEPs or between
   MEPs and other MIPs. MIPs can only receive and process OAM packets
   addressed to the MIP itself.

   A MIP takes no action on the MPLS-TP transport path.

   [Editor's note - Add some text regarding MIP identification as well
   as about what a MIP should do if it receives an unexpected OAM
   packet]

3.4. Server MEPs

   A server MEP is a MEP of an ME that is either:

   o defined in a layer network below the MPLS-TP layer network being
      referenced, or

   o defined in a sub-layer of the MPLS-TP layer network that is below
      the sub-layer being referenced.

   A server MEP coincides with either a MIP or a MEP in the client
   (MPLS-TP) layer network.

   For example, a server MEP can be either:

   o A termination point of a physical link (e.g. 802.3), an SDH VC or
      OTH ODU for the MPLS-TP Section layer network, defined in section
      4.1. ;

   o An MPLS-TP Section MEP for MPLS-TP LSPs, defined in section 4.2. ;

   o An MPLS-TP LSP MEP for MPLS-TP PWs, defined in section 4.4. ;

   o An MPLS-TP LSP Tandem Connection MEP for higher-level LTCMEs,
      defined in section 4.3. ;

   o An MPLS-TP PW Tandem Connection MEP for higher-level PTCMEs,
      defined in section 0


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   The server MEP can run appropriate OAM functions for fault detection
   within the server (sub-)layer network, and notifies a fault
   indication to the MPLS-TP layer network.

4. Reference Model

   The reference model for the MPLS-TP framework builds upon the concept
   of an ME, and its associated MEPs and MIPs, to support the functional
   requirements specified in [11].

   The following MPLS-TP MEs are specified in this document:

   o A Section Maintenance Entity (SME), allowing monitoring and
      management of MPLS-TP Sections (between MPLS LSRs).

   o A LSP Maintenance Entity (LME), allowing monitoring and management
      of an end-to-end LSP (between LERs).

   o A PW Maintenance Entity (PME), allowing monitoring and management
      of an end-to-end SS/MS-PWs (between T-PEs).

   o An LSP Tandem Connection Maintenance Entity (LTCME), allowing
      monitoring and management of an LSP Tandem Connection between any
      LER/LSR along the LSP.

   o A MS-PW Tandem Connection Maintenance Entity (PTCME), allows
      monitoring and management of a SS/MS-PW Tandem Connection between
      any T-PE/S-PE along the (MS-)PW.

   The MEs specified in this MPLS-TP framework are compliant with the
   architecture framework for MPLS MS-PWs [7] and MPLS LSPs [2].

   Hierarchical LSPs are also supported. In this case, each LSP Tunnel
   in the hierarchy is a different sub-layer network that can be
   monitored, independently from higher and lower level LSP tunnels in
   the hierarchy, end-to-end (from LER to LER) by an LME. Tandem
   Connection monitoring via LTCME are applicable on each LSP Tunnel in
   the hierarchy.










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           Native  |<------------------- MS-PW1Z ------------------->|  Native
           Layer   |                                                 |   Layer
          Service  |    |<-PSN13->|    |<-PSN3X->|    |<-PSNXZ->|    |  Service
           (AC1)   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V   (AC2)
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
     +----+        |TPE1|   | |   |SPE3|         |SPEX|   | |   |TPEZ|       +----+
     |    |        |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |       |    |
     | CE1|--------|........PW13.......|...PW3X..|........PWXZ.......|-------|CE2 |
     |    |        |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |       |    |
     +----+        | 1  |   |2|   | 3  |         | X  |   |Y|   | Z  |       +----+
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
                   .                   .         .                   .
                   |                   |         |                   |
                   |<---- Domain 1 --->|         |<---- Domain Z --->|
                   .------------------- PW1Z  PME -------------------.
                   .---- PW13 PTCME ---.         .---- PWXZ PTCME ---.
                        .---------.                   .---------.
                         PSN13 LME                     PSNXZ LME

                        .---. .---.    .---------.    .---. .---.
                        Sec12 Sec23       Sec3X       SecXY SecYZ
                         SME   SME         SME         SME   SME

   TPE1: Terminating Provider Edge 1                 SPE2: Switching Provider Edge 3
   TPEX: Terminating Provider Edge X                 SPEZ: Switching Provider Edge Z

   .---. ME    .     MEP   ====   LSP      .... PW

           Figure 1 Reference Model for the MPLS-TP OAM Framework

   Figure 1 depicts a high-level reference model for the MPLS-TP OAM
   framework. The figure depicts portions of two MPLS-TP enabled network
   domains, Domain 1 and Domain Z. In Domain 1, LSR 1 is adjacent to LSR
   2 via the MPLS Section Sec12 and LSR2 is adjacent to LSR3 via the
   MPLS Section Sec23. Similarly, in Domain Z, LSR X is adjacent to LSR
   Y via the MPLS Section SecXY and LSR Y is adjacent to LSR Z via the
   MPLS Section SecYZ. In addition, LSR 3 is adjacent to LSR X via the
   MPLS Section 3X.

   Figure 1 also shows a bi-directional MS-PW (MS-PW1Z) between AC1 on
   LSR 1 (TPE1) and AC2 on LSR Z (TPEZ). The MS-PW consists of 3 bi-
   directional PW Segments: 1) PW Segment 13 (PW13) between LSR 1 (TPE1)
   and LSR 3 (SPE3) via the bi-directional PSN13 LSP, 2) PW Segment 3X
   (PW3X) between LSR 3 (SPE3) and LSR X (SPEX), and 3) PW Segment XZ
   (PWXZ) between LSR X (SPEX) and LSR Z (TPEZ) via the bi-directional
   PSNXZ LSP.


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   The MPLS-TP OAM procedures that apply to an instance of a given ME
   are expected to operate independently from procedures on other
   instances of the same ME and certainly of other MEs. Yet, this does
   not preclude that multiple MEs may be affected simultaneously by the
   same network condition, for example, a fiber cut event.

   Note that there are no constrains imposed by this OAM framework on
   the number, or type, of MEs that may be instantiated a particular
   node. In particular, when looking at Figure 1, it should be possible
   to configure one or more MEPs from the same node if the same node is
   the endpoint of one or more MEs.

   The subsections below define the MEs specified in this MPLS-TP OAM
   architecture  framework  document.  Unless  otherwise  stated,  all
   references to domains, LSRs, MPLS Sections, LSP, pseudowires and MEs
   in this Section are made in relation to those shown in Figure 1.

4.1. MPLS-TP Section Monitoring

   An MPLS-TP Section ME (SME) is an MPLS-TP maintenance entity intended
   to monitor the forwarding behaviour of an MPLS Section as defined in
   [10]. An SME may be configured on any MPLS section. SME OAM packets
   fate share with the user data packets sent over the monitored MPLS
   Section.

   An SME is intended to be deployed for applications where it is
   preferable to monitor the link between the topologically adjacent
   (next hop in this layer network) MPLS (and MPLS-TP enabled) LSRs
   rather than monitoring the individual LSP or PW segments traversing
   the MPLS Section and the server layer technology does not provide
   adequate OAM capabilities.

















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                   |<------------------- MS-PW1Z ------------------->|
                   |                                                 |
                   |    |<-PSN13->|    |<-PSN3X->|    |<-PSNXZ->|    |
                   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
     +----+        |TPE1|   | |   |SPE3|         |SPEX|   | |   |TPEZ|       +----+
     |    |  AC1   |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |  AC2  |    |
     | CE1|--------|........PW13.......|...PW3X..|.......PWXZ........|-------|CE2 |
     |    |        |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |       |    |
     +----+        | 1  |   |2|   | 3  |         | X  |   |Y|   | Z  |       +----+
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+

                        .--.  .--.     .--------.     .--.  .--.
                        Sec12 Sec23       Sec3X       SecXY SecYZ
                         SME   SME         SME         SME   SME

          Figure 2 Reference Example of MPLS-TP Section MEs (SME)

   Figure 2 shows 5 Section MEs configured in the path between AC1 and
   AC2: 1) Sec12 ME associated with the MPLS Section between LSR 1 and
   LSR 2, 2) Sec23 ME associated with the MPLS Section between LSR 2 and
   LSR 3, 3) Sec3X ME associated with the MPLS Section between LSR 3 and
   LSR X, 4) SecXY ME associated with the MPLS Section between LSR X and
   LSR Y, and 5) SecYZ ME associated with the MPLS Section between LSR Y
   and LSR Z.

4.2. MPLS-TP LSP End-to-End Monitoring

   An MPLS-TP LSP ME (LME) is an MPLS-TP maintenance entity intended to
   monitor the forwarding behaviour of an end-to-end LSP between two
   (e.g., a point-to-point LSP) or more (e.g., a point-to-multipoint
   LSP) LERs. An LME may be configured on any MPLS LSP. LME OAM packets
   fate share with user data packets sent over the monitored MPLS-TP
   LSP.

   An LME is intended to be deployed in scenarios where it is desirable
   to monitor the forwarding behaviour of an entire LSP between its
   LERs, rather than, say, monitoring individual PWs.









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                   |<------------------- MS-PW1Z ------------------->|
                   |                                                 |
                   |    |<-PSN13->|    |<-PSN3X->|    |<-PSNXZ->|    |
                   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
     +----+        |TPE1|   | |   |SPE3|         |SPEX|   | |   |TPEZ|       +----+
     |    |  AC1   |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |  AC2  |    |
     | CE1|--------|........PW13.......|...PW3X..|........PWXZ.......|-------|CE2 |
     |    |        |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |       |    |
     +----+        | 1  |   |2|   | 3  |         | X  |   |Y|   | Z  |       +----+
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+

                        .---------.                   .---------.
                         PSN13 LME                     PSNXZ LME

                Figure 3 Examples of MPLS-TP LSP MEs (LME)

   Figure 3 depicts 2 LMEs configured in the path between AC1 and AC2:
   1) the PSN13 LME between LER 1 and LER 3, and 2) the PSNXZ LME
   between LER X and LER Y. Note that the presence of a PSN3X LME in
   such a configuration is optional, hence, not precluded by this
   framework. For instance, the SPs may prefer to monitor the MPLS-TP
   Section between the two LSRs rather than the individual LSPs.

4.3. MPLS-TP LSP Tandem Connection Monitoring

   An MPLS-TP LSP Tandem Connection Monitoring ME (LTCME) is an MPLS-TP
   maintenance entity intended to monitor the forwarding behaviour of an
   arbitrary part of an LSP between a given pair of LSRs independently
   from the end-to-end monitoring (LME). An LTCME can monitor an LSP
   segment  or  concatenated  segment  and  it  may  also  include  the
   forwarding engine(s) of the node(s) at the edge(s) of the segment or
   concatenated segment.

   Multiple LTCMEs MAY BE configured on any LSP. The LSRs that terminate
   the LTCME may or may not be immediately adjacent at the MPLS-TP
   layer. LTCME OAM packets fate share with the user data packets sent
   over the monitored LSP segment.

   A LTCME can be defined between the following entities:

        o LER and any LSR of a given LSP.

        o Any two LSRs of a given LSP.

   An LTCME is intended to be deployed in scenarios where it is
   preferable to monitor the behaviour of a part of an LSP rather than


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   the entire LSP itself, for example when there is a need to monitor a
   part of an LSP that extends beyond the administrative boundaries of
   an MPLS-TP enabled administrative domain.

   Note that LTCMEs are equally applicable to hierarchical LSPs.



                   |<--------------------- PW1Z -------------------->|
                   |                                                 |
                   |    |<--------------PSN1Z LSP-------------->|    |
                   |    |<-PSN13->|    |<-PSN3X->|    |<-PSNXZ->|    |
                   V    V  S-LSP  V    V  S-LSP  V    V  S-LSP  V    V
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
     +----+        | PE1|   | |   |DBN3|         |DBNX|   | |   | PEZ|       +----+
     |    |  AC1   |    |=======================================|    |  AC2  |    |
     | CE1|--------|......................PW1Z.......................|-------|CE2 |
     |    |        |    |=======================================|    |       |    |
     +----+        | 1  |   |2|   | 3  |         | X  |   |Y|   | Z  |       +----+
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
                   .                   .         .                   .
                   |                   |         |                   |
                   |<---- Domain 1 --->|         |<---- Domain Z --->|

                        .---------.                   .---------.
                        PSN13 LTCME                   PSNXZ LTCME
                        .---------------------------------------.
                                        PSN1Z LME

   DBN: Domain Border Node

        Figure 4 MPLS-TP LSP Tandem Connection Monitoring ME (LTCME)

   Figure 4 depicts a variation of the reference model in Figure 1 where
   there is an end-to-end PSN LSP (PSN1Z LSP) between PE1 and PEZ. PSN1Z
   LSP consists of, at least, three stitched LSP Segments: PSN13, PSN3X
   and PSNXZ. In this scenario there are two separate LTCMEs configured
   to monitor the forwarding behaviour of the PSN1Z LSP: 1) a LTCME
   monitoring the PSN13 LSP Segment on Domain 1 (PSN13 LTCME), and 2) a
   LTCME monitoring the PSNXZ LSP Segment on Domain Z (PSNXZ LTCME).

   It is worth noticing that LTCMEs can coexist with the LME monitoring
   the end-to-end LSP and that LTCME MEPs and LME MEPs can be coincident
   in the same node (e.g. PE1 node supports both the PSN1Z LME MEP and
   the PSN13 LTCME MEP).




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4.4. MPLS-TP PW Monitoring

   An MPLS-TP PW ME (PME) is an MPLS-TP maintenance entity intended to
   monitor the end-to-end forwarding behaviour of a SS-PW or MS-PW
   between a pair of T-PEs. A PME MAY be configured on any SS-PW or MS-
   PW. PME OAM packets fate share with the user data packets sent over
   the monitored PW.

   A PME is intended to be deployed in scenarios where it is desirable
   to monitor the forwarding behaviour of an entire PW between a pair of
   MPLS-TP enabled T-PEs rather than monitoring the LSP aggregating
   multiple PWs between PEs.

                   |<------------------- MS-PW1Z ------------------->|
                   |                                                 |
                   |    |<-PSN13->|    |<-PSN3X->|    |<-PSNXZ->|    |
                   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
     +----+        |TPE1|   | |   |SPE3|         |SPEX|   | |   |TPEZ|       +----+
     |    |  AC1   |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |  AC2  |    |
     | CE1|--------|........PW13.......|...PW3X..|........PWXZ.......|-------|CE2 |
     |    |        |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |       |    |
     +----+        | 1  |   |2|   | 3  |         | X  |   |Y|   | Z  |       +----+
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+

                   .---------------------PW1Z PME--------------------.

                       Figure 5 MPLS-TP PW ME (PME)

   Figure 5 depicts a MS-PW (MS-PW1Z) consisting of three segments:
   PW13, PW3X and PWXZ and its associated end-to-end PME (PW1Z PME).

4.5. MPLS-TP MS-PW Tandem Connection Monitoring

   An MPLS-TP MS-PW Tandem Connection Monitoring ME (PTCME) is an MPLS-
   TP maintenance entity intended to monitor the forwarding behaviour of
   an  arbitrary  part  of  an  MS-PW  between  a  given  pair  of  PEs
   independently from the end-to-end monitoring (PME). An PTCME can
   monitor a PW segment or concatenated segment and it may alos include
   the forwarding engine(s) of the node(s) at the edge(s) of the segment
   or concatenated segment.

   Multiple PTCMEs MAY be configured on any MS-PW. The PEs may or may
   not be immediately adjacent at the MS-PW layer. PTCME OAM packets
   fate share with the user data packets sent over the monitored MS-PW
   Segment.



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   A PTCME can be defined between the following entities:

   o T-PE and any S-PE of a given MS-PW

   o Any two S-PEs of a given MS-PW. It can span several PW segments.

   A PTCME is intended to be deployed in scenarios where it is
   preferable to monitor the behaviour of a part of a MS-PW rather than
   the entire end-to-end PW itself, for example to monitor an MS-PW
   Segment within a given network domain of an inter-domain MS-PW.

                   |<------------------- MS-PW1Z ------------------->|
                   |                                                 |
                   |    |<-PSN13->|    |<-PSN3X->|    |<-PSNXZ->|    |
                   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V   LSP   V    V
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+
     +----+        |TPE1|   | |   |SPE3|         |SPEX|   | |   |TPEZ|       +----+
     |    |  AC1   |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |  AC2  |    |
     | CE1|--------|........PW13.......|...PW3X..|........PWXZ.......|-------|CE2 |
     |    |        |    |=========|    |=========|    |=========|    |       |    |
     +----+        | 1  |   |2|   | 3  |         | X  |   |Y|   | Z  |       +----+
                   +----+   +-+   +----+         +----+   +-+   +----+

                   .---- PW1 PTCME ----.         .---- PW5 PTCME ----.
                   .---------------------PW1Z PME--------------------.

        Figure 6 MPLS-TP MS-PW Tandem Connection Monitoring (PTCME)

   Figure 6 depicts the same MS-PW (MS-PW1Z) between AC1 and AC2 as in
   Figure 5. In this scenario there are two separate PTCMEs configured
   to monitor the forwarding behaviour of MS-PW1Z: 1) a PTCME monitoring
   the PW13 MS-PW Segment on Domain 1 (PW13 PTCME), and 2) a PTCME
   monitoring the PWXZ MS-PW Segment on Domain Z with (PWXZ PTCME).

   It is worth noticing that PTCMEs can coexist with the PME monitoring
   the end-to-end MS-PW and that PTCME MEPs and PME MEPs can be
   coincident in the same node (e.g. TPE1 node supports both the PW1Z
   PME MEP and the PW13 PTCME MEP).

5. OAM Functions for pro-active monitoring

5.1. Continuity Check and Connectivity Verification

   Proactive Continuity and Connectivity Verification (CC & CV) function
   is used to detect loss of continuity (LOC), unexpected connectivity
   between two MEs (e.g. mismerging or misconnection) as well as
   unexpected connectivity within the ME with an unexpected MEP.


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   Proactive CC & CV is based upon the generation of OAM pro-active
   CC/CV packets, carrying a unique ME identifier, at a regular
   configurable timing rate and the detection of LOC when these packets
   do not arrive. If the received ME identifier does not match the
   expected ME identifier, a connectivity defect has occurred. The
   default CC/CV transmission periods are application dependent (see
   section 5.1.1. )

   Proactive CC & CV packets are transmitted with the "minimum loss
   probability PHB" within a single network operator. This PHB is
   configurable on network operator's basis.

   [Editor's note - Describe the relation between the previous paragraph
   and the fate sharing requirement. Need to clarify also in the
   requirement document that for proactive CC&CV the fate sharing is
   related to the forwarding behavior and not to the QoS behavior]

   For statically provisioned transport paths, the transmission period
   and the ME identifier are statically configured at both MEPs. For
   dynamically established transport paths, the transmission period and
   the ME identifier are signaled via the control plane.

   In a bidirectional point-to-point transport path, when a MEP is
   enabled to generate pro-active CC/CV packets with a configured
   transmission period, it also expects to receive pro-active CC/CV
   packets from its peer MEP with the same transmission period. In a
   unidirectional transport path (point-to-point or point-to-
   multipoint), only the source MEP is enabled to generate packets with
   CC/CV information. This MEP does not expect to receive any packets
   with CC/CV information from its peer MEPs in the ME.

   MIPs as well as intermediate nodes not supporting MPLS-TP OAM are
   transparent to the pro-active CC/CV information and forward pro-
   active CC/CV packets as regular data packets.

   When CC & CV is enabled, a MEP periodically transmits pro-active
   CC/CV packets with frequency of the configured transmission period.

   When CC & CV is enabled, a MEP detects loss of continuity (LOC)
   defect with a peer MEP when it receives no pro-active CC/CV packets
   from the peer MEP within the interval equal to 3.5 times the
   transmission period.

   When a pro-active CC/CV packet is received, a MEP is able to detect a
   mis-connectivity defect (e.g. mismerge or misconnection) with another
   ME when the received packet carries an incorrect ME identifier.



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   If pro-active CC/CV packets are received with a transmission period
   different than expected, CC/CV period mis-configuration defect is
   detected.

   [Editor's note - Need to add the defect clearing conditions and
   complete the description of consequent actions]

   [Editor's note - Transport equipment also performs defect correlation
   (as defined in G.806) in order to properly report failures to the
   transport NSM. The current working assumption, to be further
   investigated, is that defect correlations are outside the scope of
   this document and to be defined in ITU-T documents.]

   A receiving MEP notifies the equipment fault management process when
   it detects the above defect conditions.

   If a MEP detects an unexpected connectivity it MUST block all the
   traffic (including also the user data packets) that it receives from
   the misconnected transport path.

   It is worth noticing that the OAM requirements document [11]
   recommends that CC-CV proactive monitoring is enabled on every ME in
   order to reliably detect connectivity defects.

   However, CC-CV proactive monitoring can be disabled by an operator on
   a ME. In this case a LOC defect can be a connectivity problem (e.g. a
   misconnection with a transport path where CC-CV proactive monitoring
   is not enabled) and not necessarily a continuity problem, with a
   consequent wrong traffic delivering.

   For these reasons, the traffic block consequent action is applied
   even when a LOC condition occurs.

   The activation of the traffic block consequent action is configurable
   (i.e. the operator can enable/disable the consequent action) in case
   of LOC condition.

   In order to enable the proactive CC-CV monitoring on a configured ME
   in a not traffic affecting way, the MEP source function (generating
   pro-active CC&CV packets) should be enabled before the corresponding
   MEP sink function (detecting continuity and connectivity defects).
   Vice versa, when disabling the CC-CV proactive functionality, MEP
   sink function should be disabled before the corresponding MEP source
   function.





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   If it is not possible to synchronize both direction on the peer MEPs,
   the traffic can be preserved even disabling/re-enabling the traffic
   block consequent action due to a LOC defect.

5.1.1. Applications for proactive CC & CV function

   CC & CV is applicable for fault management, performance monitoring,
   or protection switching applications.

   o Fault Management: default transmission period is 1s (i.e.
      transmission rate of 1 packet/second)

   o Performance Monitoring: default transmission period is 100ms (i.e.
      transmission rate of 10 packets/second)

   o Protection Switching: in order to achieve sub-50ms recovery time
      the default transmission period is 3.33ms (i.e. transmission rate
      of 300 packets/second) although a transmission period of 10ms can
      also be used. In some cases, when a slower recovery time is
      acceptable, it is also possible to relax the transmission period.

5.2. Remote Defect Indication

   The Remote Defect Indication (RDI) is an indicator that is
   transmitted by a MEP to communicate to its peer MEPs that a signal
   fail condition exists.  RDI is only used for bidirectional
   connections and is associated with proactive CC & CV packet
   generation.

   A MEP detects a signal fail condition (and thus starts transmitting
   an RDI indication to its peer MEP) in case of a continuity or
   connectivity defect or an AIS condition is detected.

   [Editor's note - Add some forward compatibility information to cover
   the case where future OAM mechanisms that contributes to the signal
   fail detection (and RDI generation) are defined.]

   A sink MEP that has identified a signal fail should report this to
   the associated source MEP that should include the RDI information in
   all pro-active CC/CV packets that it generates for the duration of
   the signal fail condition existence.

   A MEP that receives the packets with the RDI information should
   determine that its peer MEP has encountered a defect condition
   associated with a signal fail.




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   MIPs as well as intermediate nodes not supporting MPLS-TP OAM are
   transparent to the RDI indicator and forward pro-active CC/CV packets
   that include the RDI indicator as regular data packets, i.e. the MIP
   should not perform any actions nor examine the indicator.

   When the signal fail defect condition clears, the MEP should clear
   the RDI indicator from subsequent transmission of pro-active CC/CV
   packets.

   A MEP also clears the RDI defect upon reception of a pro-active CC/CV
   packet from the source MEP with the RDI indicator cleared.

5.2.1. Configuration considerations

   In order to support RDI indication, the RDI transmission rate and PHB
   of the MEP should be configured as part of the CC & CV configuration.

5.2.2. Applications for Remote Defect Indication

   RDI is applicable for the following applications:

   o Single-ended fault management - A MEP that receives an RDI
      indication from its peer MEP, can report a far-end defect
      condition (i.e. the peer MEP has detected a signal fail condition
      in the traffic direction from the MEP that receives the RDI
      indication to the peer MEP that has sent the RDI information).

   o Contribution to far-end performance monitoring - The indication of
      the far-end defect condition is used as a contribution to the
      bidirectional performance monitoring process.

5.3. Alarm Suppression

   Alarm Indication Signal function (AIS) is used to suppress alarms
   following detection of defect conditions at the server (sub) layer.

   o A server MEP that detects a signal fail conditions in the server
      (sub-)layer, can generate packets with AIS information to allow
      the suppression of secondary alarms at the MEP in the client (sub-
      )layer.

   A server MEP is responsible for notifying the MPLS-TP layer network
   MEP upon fault detection in the server layer network to which the
   server MEP is associated.

   Only Server MEPs can issue MPLS-TP packets with AIS information. Upon
   detection of a signal fail condition the Server MEP can immediately


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   start transmitting packets with AIS information periodically. A
   Server MEP continues to transmit periodic packets with AIS
   information until the signal fail condition is cleared.

   Upon receiving a packet with AIS information a MEP detects an AIS
   defect condition and suppresses loss of continuity alarms associated
   with all its peer MEPs.  A MEP resumes loss of continuity alarm
   generation upon detecting loss of continuity defect conditions in the
   absence of AIS condition.

   For example a fiber cut between LSR 1 and LSR 2 in the reference
   network of Figure 1 can be considered. Assuming that all the MEs
   described in Figure 1 have pro-active CC&CV enable, a LOC defect is
   detected by the MEPs of Sec12 SME, PSN13 LME, PW1 PTCME and PW1Z PME,
   however in transport network only the alarm associate to the fiber
   cut needs to be reported to NMS while all these secondary alarms
   should be suppressed (i.e. not reported to the NMS or reported as
   secondary alarms).

   If the fiber cut is detected by the MEP in the physical layer (in
   LSR2), LSR2 can generate the proper alarm in the physical layer and
   suppress the secondary alarm associated with the LOC defect detected
   on Sec12 SME. As both MEPs reside within the same node, this process
   does not involve any external protocol exchange. Otherwise, if the
   physical layer has not enough OAM capabilities to detect the fiber
   cut, the MEP of Sec12 SME in LSR2 will report a LOC alarm.

   In both cases, the MEP of Sec12 SME in LSR 2 generates AIS packets on
   the PSN13 LME in order to allow its MEP in LSR3 to suppress the LOC
   alarm.

   LSR3 can also suppress the secondary alarm on PW1 PTCME because the
   MEP of PW1 PTCME resides within the same node as the MEP of PSN13
   LME.

   The MEP of PW1 PTCME in LSR3 also generates AIS packets on PW1Z PME
   in order to allow its MEP in LSRZ to suppress the LOC alarm.

   The generation of AIS packets for each MEs in the client (sub-)layer
   is configurable (i.e. the operator can enable/disable the AIS
   generation).

   AIS packets are transmitted with the "minimum loss probability PHB"
   within a single network operator. This PHB is configurable on network
   operator's basis.




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   A MIP is transparent to packets with AIS information and therefore
   does not require any information to support AIS functionality.

5.4. Lock Indication

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

5.5. Packet Loss Measurement

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

5.6. Client Signal Fail

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

6. OAM Functions for on-demand monitoring

6.1. Continuity Check and Connectivity Verification

   In order to preserve network resources, e.g. bandwidth, processing
   time at switches, it may be preferable to not use continual pro-
   active CC & CV.  In order to perform fault management functions
   network management may invoke periodic on-demand bursts of on-demand
   CC/CV packets.  Use of on-demand CC & CV is dependent on the
   existence of a bi-directional connection ME.

   An additional use of on-demand CC & CV would be to detect and locate
   a problem of connectivity when a problem is suspected or known based
   on other tools.  In this case the functionality will be triggered by
   the network management in response to a status signal or alarm
   indication.

   On-demand CC & CV is based upon generation of on-demand CC/CV packets
   that should uniquely identify the ME that is being checked.  The on-
   demand functionality may be used to check either an entire ME (end-
   to-end) or between a MEP to a specific MIP.

   On-demand CC & CV may generate a one-time burst of on-demand CC/CV
   packets, or be used to invoke periodic, non-continuous, bursts of on-
   demand CC/CV packets.  The number of packets generated in each burst
   is configurable at the MEPs, and should take into account normal
   packet-loss conditions.

   When invoking a periodic check of the ME, the source MEP should issue
   a burst of on-demand CC/CV packets that uniquely identifies the ME
   being verified.  The number of packets and their transmission rate
   should be pre-configured and known to both the source MEP and the


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   target MEP or MIP.  The source MEP should use the TTL field to
   indicate the number of hops necessary, when targeting a MIP and use
   the default value when performing an end-to-end check [IB => This is
   quite generic for addressing packets to MIPs and MEPs so it is better
   to move this text in section 2].  The target MEP/MIP shall return a
   reply on-demand CC/CV packet for each packet received.  If the
   expected number of on-demand CC/CV reply packets is not received at
   source MEP, a LOC state is detected.

   [Editor's note - We need to add some text for the usage of on-demand
   CC&CV with different packet sizes, e.g. to discover MTU problems.]

   When a connectivity problem is detected (e.g. via a pro-active CC&CV
   OAM tool), on demand CC&CV tool can be used to check the path.  The
   series should check CC&CV from MEP to peer MEP on the path, and if a
   fault is discovered, by lack of response, then additional checks may
   be performed to each of the intermediate MIP to locate the fault.

6.1.1. Configuration considerations

   For on-demand CC & CV the MEP should support configuration of number
   of packets to be transmitted/received in each burst of transmissions
   and the transmission rate should be either pre-configured or
   negotiated between the different nodes.

   In addition, when the CC & CV packet is  used to check connectivity
   toward a target MIP, the number of hops to reach the target MIP
   should be configured.

   The PHB of the on-demand CC/CV packets should be configured as well.

   [Editor's note - We need to be better define the reason for such
   configuration]

6.2. Packet Loss Measurement

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

6.3. Diagnostic Test

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

6.4. Trace routing

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document




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6.5. Packet Delay Measurement

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

7. OAM Protocols Overview

   To be incorporated in a future revision of this document

8. Security Considerations

   A number of security considerations important in the context of OAM
   applications.

   OAM traffic can reveal sensitive information such as passwords,
   performance data and details about e.g. the network topology. The
   nature of OAM data therefore suggests to have some form of
   authentication, authorization and encryption in place. This will
   prevent unauthorized access to vital equipment and it will prevent
   third parties from learning about sensitive information about the
   transport network.

   Mechanisms that the framework does not specify might be subject to
   additional security considerations.

9. IANA Considerations

   No new IANA considerations.

10. Acknowledgments

   The authors would like to thank all members of the teams (the Joint
   Working Team, the MPLS Interoperability Design Team in IETF and the
   T-MPLS Ad Hoc Group in ITU-T) involved in the definition and
   specification of MPLS Transport Profile.

   This document was prepared using 2-Word-v2.0.template.dot.












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11. References

11.1. Normative References

   [1]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate Requirement
         Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997

   [2]  Rosen, E., Viswanathan, A., Callon, R., "Multiprotocol Label
         Switching Architecture", RFC 3031, January 2001

   [3]  Rosen, E., et al., "MPLS Label Stack Encoding", RFC 3032,
         January 2001

   [4]  Agarwal, P., Akyol, B., "Time To Live (TTL) Processing in
         Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) Networks", RFC 3443,
         January 2003

   [5]  Bryant, S., Pate, P., "Pseudo Wire Emulation Edge-to-Edge
         (PWE3) Architecture", RFC 3985, March 2005

   [6]  Nadeau, T., Pignataro, S., "Pseudowire Virtual Circuit
         Connectivity Verification (VCCV): A Control Channel for
         Pseudowires", RFC 5085, December 2007

   [7]  Bocci, M., Bryant, S., "An Architecture for Multi-Segment
         Pseudo Wire Emulation Edge-to-Edge", draft-ietf-pwe3-ms-pw-
         arch-05 (work in progress), September 2008

   [8]  Bocci, M., et al., "A Framework for MPLS in Transport
         Networks", draft-ietf-mpls-tp-framework-00 (work in progress),
         November 2008

   [9]  Vigoureux, M., Bocci, M., Swallow, G., Ward, D., Aggarwal, R.,
         "MPLS Generic Associated Channel ", draft-ietf-mpls-tp-gach-
         gal-02 (work in progress), February 2009

11.2. Informative References

   [10] Niven-Jenkins, B., Brungard, D., Betts, M., sprecher, N., Ueno,
         S., "MPLS-TP Requirements", draft-ietf-mpls-tp-requirements-05
         (work in progress), March 2009

   [11] Vigoureux, M., Betts, M., Ward, D., "Requirements for OAM in
         MPLS Transport Networks", draft-ietf-mpls-tp-oam-requirements-
         01 (work in progress), March 2009




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   [12] Sprecher, N., Nadeau, T., van Helvoort, H., Weingarten, Y.,
         "MPLS-TP OAM Analysis", draft-sprecher-mpls-tp-oam-analysis-02
         (work in progress), September 2008

   [13] Farrel, A., Ayyangar, A., Vasseur, JP., "Inter-Domain MPLS and
         GMPLS Traffic Engineering -- Resource Reservation Protocol-
         Traffic Engineering (RSVP-TE) Extensions", RFC 5151, February
         2008

   [14] ITU-T Recommendation G.707/Y.1322 (01/07), "Network node
         interface for the synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)", 2007

Authors' Addresses

   Italo Busi (Editor)
   Alcatel-Lucent

   Email: Italo.Busi@alcatel-lucent.it


   Ben Niven-Jenkins (Editor)
   BT

   Email: benjamin.niven-jenkins@bt.com


Contributing Authors' Addresses

   Annamaria Fulignoli
   Ericsson

   Email: annamaria.fulignoli@ericsson.com


   Enrique Hernandez-Valencia
   Alcatel-Lucent

   Email: enrique@alcatel-lucent.com


   Lieven Levrau
   Alcatel-Lucent

   Email: llevrau@alcatel-lucent.com





Busi et al.          Expires September 16, 2009              [Page 27]


Internet-Draft   MPLS-TP OAM Framework and Overview         March 2009


   Dinesh Mohan
   Nortel

   Email: mohand@nortel.com


   Vincenzo Sestito
   Alcatel-Lucent

   Email: vincenzo.sestito@alcatel-lucent.it


   Nurit Sprecher
   Nokia Siemens Networks

   Email: nurit.sprecher@nsn.com


   Huub van Helvoort
   Huawei Technologies

   Email: hhelvoort@huawei.com


   Martin Vigoureux
   Alcatel-Lucent

   Email: martin.vigoureux@alcatel-lucent.fr


   Yaacov Weingarten
   Nokia Siemens Networks

   Email: yaacov.weingarten@nsn.com


   Rolf Winter
   NEC

   Email: Rolf.Winter@nw.neclab.eu









Busi et al.          Expires September 16, 2009              [Page 28]