CoRE                                                   O. Garcia-Morchon
Internet-Draft                                                  S. Kumar
Intended status: Informational                          Philips Research
Expires: March 15, 2014                                          S. Keoh
                                                   University of Glasgow
                                                               R. Hummen
                                                             RWTH Aachen
                                                               R. Struik
                                                      Struik Consultancy
                                                      September 11, 2013


       Security Considerations in the IP-based Internet of Things
                     draft-garcia-core-security-06

Abstract

   A direct interpretation of the Internet of Things concept refers to
   the usage of standard Internet protocols to allow for human-to-thing
   or thing-to-thing communication.  Although the security needs are
   well-recognized, it is still not fully clear how existing IP-based
   security protocols can be applied to this new setting.  This
   Internet-Draft first provides an overview of security architecture,
   its deployment model and general security needs in the context of the
   lifecycle of a thing.  Then, it presents challenges and requirements
   for the successful roll-out of new applications and usage of standard
   IP-based security protocols when applied to get a functional Internet
   of Things.

Status of this Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at http://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on September 12, 2013.

Copyright Notice




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   Copyright (c) 2013 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
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   publication of this document.  Please review these documents
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   include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
   the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
   described in the Simplified BSD License.







































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Table of Contents

   1.  Conventions and Terminology Used in this Document  . . . . . .  4
   2.  Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  4
   3.  The Thing Lifecycle and Architectural Considerations . . . . .  5
     3.1.  Threat Analysis  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  6
     3.2.  Security Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
   4.  State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
     4.1.  IP-based Security Solutions  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
     4.2.  Wireless Sensor Network Security and Beyond  . . . . . . . 15
   5.  Challenges for a Secure Internet of Things . . . . . . . . . . 16
     5.1.  Constraints and Heterogeneous Communication  . . . . . . . 16
       5.1.1.  Tight Resource Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
       5.1.2.  Denial-of-Service Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
       5.1.3.  Protocol Translation and End-to-End Security . . . . . 18
     5.2.  Bootstrapping of a Security Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
       5.2.1.  Distributed vs. Centralized Architecture and
               Operation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
       5.2.2.  Bootstrapping a thing's identity and keying
               materials  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
       5.2.3.  Privacy-aware Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
     5.3.  Operation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
       5.3.1.  End-to-End Security  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
       5.3.2.  Group Membership and Security  . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
       5.3.3.  Mobility and IP Network Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . 24
   6.  Security Suites for the IP-based Internet of Things  . . . . . 25
     6.1.  Security Architecture  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
     6.2.  Security Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
     6.3.  Security Bootstrapping and Management  . . . . . . . . . . 31
     6.4.  Network Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
     6.5.  Application Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
   7.  Next Steps towards a Flexible and Secure Internet of Things  . 36
   8.  Security Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
   9.  IANA Considerations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
   10.  Acknowledgements  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
   11.  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
     11.1.  Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
   Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45













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1.  Conventions and Terminology Used in this Document

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and "OPTIONAL" in this
   document are to be interpreted as described in "Key words for use in
   RFCs to Indicate Requirement Levels" [RFC2119].


2.  Introduction

   The Internet of Things (IoT) denotes the interconnection of highly
   heterogeneous networked entities and networks following a number of
   communication patterns such as: human-to-human (H2H), human-to-thing
   (H2T), thing-to-thing (T2T), or thing-to-things (T2Ts).  The term IoT
   was first coined by the Auto-ID center [AUTO-ID] in 1999.  Since
   then, the development of the underlying concepts has ever increased
   its pace.  Nowadays, the IoT presents a strong focus of research with
   various initiatives working on the (re)design, application, and usage
   of standard Internet technology in the IoT.

   The introduction of IPv6 and web services as fundamental building
   blocks for IoT applications [RFC6568] promises to bring a number of
   basic advantages including: (i) a homogeneous protocol ecosystem that
   allows simple integration with Internet hosts; (ii) simplified
   development of very different appliances; (iii) an unified interface
   for applications, removing the need for application-level proxies.
   Such features greatly simplify the deployment of the envisioned
   scenarios ranging from building automation to production environments
   to personal area networks, in which very different things such as a
   temperature sensor, a luminaire, or an RFID tag might interact with
   each other, with a human carrying a smart phone, or with backend
   services.

   This Internet Draft presents an overview of the security aspects of
   the envisioned all-IP architecture as well as of the lifecycle of an
   IoT device, a thing, within this architecture.  In particular, we
   review the most pressing aspects and functionalities that are
   required for a secure all-IP solution.

   With this, this Internet-Draft pursues several goals.  First, we aim
   at presenting a comprehensive view of the interactions and
   relationships between an IoT application and security.  Second, we
   aim at describing challenges for a secure IoT in the specific context
   of the lifecycle of a resource-constrained device.  The final goal of
   this draft is to discuss the next steps towards a secure IoT.

   The rest of the Internet-Draft is organized as follows.  Section 3
   depicts the lifecycle of a thing and gives general definitions for



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   the main security aspects within the IoT domain.  In Section 4, we
   review existing protocols and work done in the area of security for
   wireless sensor networks.  Section 5 identifies general challenges
   and needs for an IoT security protocol design and discusses existing
   protocols and protocol proposals against the identified requirements.
   Section 6 proposes a number of illustrative security suites
   describing how different applications involve distinct security
   needs.  Section 7 includes final remarks and conclusions.


3.  The Thing Lifecycle and Architectural Considerations

   We consider the installation of a Building Automation and Control
   (BAC) system to illustrate the lifecycle of a thing in a BAC
   scenario.  A BAC system consists of a network of interconnected nodes
   that perform various functions in the domains of HVAC (Heating,
   Ventilating, and Air Conditioning), lighting, safety etc.  The nodes
   vary in functionality and a majority of them represent resource
   constrained devices such as sensors and luminaries.  Some devices may
   also be battery operated or battery-less nodes, demanding for a focus
   on low energy consumption and on sleeping devices.

   In our example, the life of a thing starts when it is manufactured.
   Due to the different application areas (i.e., HVAC, lighting, safety)
   nodes are tailored to a specific task.  It is therefore unlikely that
   one single manufacturer will create all nodes in a building.  Hence,
   interoperability as well as trust bootstrapping between nodes of
   different vendors is important.  The thing is later installed and
   commissioned within a network by an installer during the
   bootstrapping phase.  Specifically, the device identity and the
   secret keys used during normal operation are provided to the device
   during this phase.  Different subcontractors may install different
   IoT devices for different purposes.  Furthermore, the installation
   and bootstrapping procedures may not be a defined event but may
   stretch over an extended period of time.  After being bootstrapped,
   the device and the system of things are in operational mode and run
   the functions of the BAC system.  During this operational phase, the
   device is under the control of the system owner.  For devices with
   lifetimes spanning several years, occasional maintenance cycles may
   be required.  During each maintenance phase, the software on the
   device can be upgraded or applications running on the device can be
   reconfigured.  The maintenance tasks can thereby be performed either
   locally or from a backend system.  Depending on the operational
   changes of the device, it may be required to re-bootstrap at the end
   of a maintenance cycle.  The device continues to loop through the
   operational phase and the eventual maintenance phase until the device
   is decommissioned at the end of its lifecycle.  However, the end-of-
   life of a device does not necessarily mean that it is defective but



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   rather denotes a need to replace and upgrade the network to next-
   generation devices in order to provide additional functionality.
   Therefore the device can be removed and re-commissioned to be used in
   a different network under a different owner by starting the lifecycle
   over again.  Figure 1 shows the generic lifecycle of a thing.  This
   generic lifecycle is also applicable for IoT scenarios other than BAC
   systems.

   At present, BAC systems use legacy building control standards such as
   BACNet [BACNET] or DALI [DALI] with independent networks for each
   subsystem (HVAC, lighting, etc.).  However, this separation of
   functionality adds further complexity and costs to the configuration
   and maintenance of the different networks within the same building.
   As a result, more recent building control networks employ IP-based
   standards allowing seamless control over the various nodes with a
   single management system.  While allowing for easier integration,
   this shift towards IP-based standards results in new requirements
   regarding the implementation of IP security protocols on constrained
   devices and the bootstrapping of security keys for devices across
   multiple manufacturers.


            _Manufactured           _SW update          _Decommissioned
   /                       /                   /
   |   _Installed          |   _ Application   |   _Removed &
   |  /                    |  / reconfigured   |  /  replaced
   |  |   _Commissioned    |  |                |  |
   |  |  /                 |  |                |  |   _Reownership &
   |  |  |    _Application |  |   _Application |  |  / recommissioned
   |  |  |   /   running   |  |  / running     |  |  |
   |  |  |   |             |  |  |             |  |  |             \\
   +##+##+###+#############+##+##+#############+##+##+##############>>>
       \/  \______________/ \/  \_____________/ \___/         time //
       /           /         \          \          \
   Bootstrapping  /      Maintenance &   \     Maintenance &
                 /      re-bootstrapping  \   re-bootstrapping
           Operational                Operational

            The lifecycle of a thing in the Internet of Things.

                                 Figure 1

3.1.  Threat Analysis

   This section explores the security threats and vulnerabilities of a
   network of things in the IoTs.  Security threats have been analyzed
   in related IP protocols including HTTPS [RFC2818], 6LoWPAN [RFC4919],
   ANCP [RFC5713], DNS security threats [RFC3833], SIP [RFC3261], IPv6



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   ND [RFC3756], and PANA [RFC4016].  Nonetheless, the challenge is
   about their impacts on scenarios of the IoTs.  In this section, we
   specifically discuss the threats that could compromise an individual
   thing, or network as a whole, with regard to different phases in the
   thing's lifecycle.  Note that these set of threats might go beyond
   the scope of Internet protocols but we gather them here for the sake
   of completeness.

   1   Cloning of things: During the manufacturing process of a thing,
       an untrusted manufacturer can easily clone the physical
       characteristics, firmware/software, or security configuration of
       the thing.  Subsequently, such a cloned thing may be sold at a
       cheaper price in the market, and yet be still able to function
       normally, as a genuine thing.  For example, two cloned devices
       can still be associated and work with each other.  In the worst
       case scenario, a cloned device can be used to control a genuine
       device.  One should note here, that an untrusted manufacturer may
       also change functionality of the cloned thing, resulting in
       degraded functionality with respect to the genuine thing
       (thereby, inflicting potential reputational risk to the original
       thing manufacturer).  Moreover, it can implement additional
       functionality with the cloned thing, such as a backdoor.

   2   Malicious substitution of things: During the installation of a
       thing, a genuine thing may be substituted with a similar variant
       of lower quality without being detected.  The main motivation may
       be cost savings, where the installation of lower-quality things
       (e.g., non-certified products) may significantly reduce the
       installation and operational costs.  The installers can
       subsequently resell the genuine things in order to gain further
       financial benefits.  Another motivation may be to inflict
       reputational damage on a competitor's offerings.

   3   Eavesdropping attack: During the commissioning of a thing into a
       network, it may be susceptible to eavesdropping, especially if
       operational keying materials, security parameters, or
       configuration settings, are exchanged in clear using a wireless
       medium.  After obtaining the keying material, the attacker might
       be able to recover the secret keys established between the
       communicating entities (e.g., H2T, T2Ts, or Thing to the backend
       management system), thereby compromising the authenticity and
       confidentiality of the communication channel, as well as the
       authenticity of commands and other traffic exchanged over this
       communication channel.  When the network is in operation, T2T
       communication may be eavesdropped upon if the communication
       channel is not sufficiently protected or in the event of session
       key compromise due to a long period of usage without key renewal
       or updates.



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   4   Man-in-the-middle attack: The commissioning phase may also be
       vulnerable to man-in-the-middle attacks, e.g., when keying
       material between communicating entities is exchanged in the clear
       and the security of the key establishment protocol depends on the
       tacit assumption that no third party is able to eavesdrop on or
       sit in between the two communicating entities during the
       execution of this protocol.  Additionally, device authentication
       or device authorization may be nontrivial, or may need support of
       a human decision process, since things usually do not have a
       priori knowledge about each other and can, therefore, not always
       be able to differentiate friends and foes via completely
       automated mechanisms.  Thus, even if the key establishment
       protocol provides cryptographic device authentication, this
       knowledge on device identities may still need complementing with
       a human-assisted authorization step (thereby, presenting a weak
       link and offering the potential of man-in-the-middle attacks this
       way).

   5   Firmware Replacement attack: When a thing is in operation or
       maintenance phase, its firmware or software may be updated to
       allow for new functionality or new features.  An attacker may be
       able to exploit such a firmware upgrade by replacing the thing's
       with malicious software, thereby influencing the operational
       behaviour of the thing.  For example, an attacker could add a
       piece of malicious code to the firmware that will cause it to
       periodically report the energy usage of the lamp to a data
       repository for analysis.

   6   Extraction of security parameters: A thing deployed in the
       ambient environment (such as sensors, actuators, etc.) is usually
       physically unprotected and could easily be captured by an
       attacker.  Such an attacker may then attempt to extract security
       information such as keys (e.g., device's key, private-key, group
       key) from this thing or try and re-program it to serve his needs.
       If a group key is used and compromised this way, the whole
       network may be compromised as well.  Compromise of a thing's
       unique key has less security impact, since only the communication
       channels of this particular thing in question are compromised.
       Here, one should caution that compromise of the communication
       channel may also compromise all data communicated over this
       channel.  In particular, one has to be weary of, e.g., compromise
       of group keys communicated over this channel (thus, leading to
       transitive exposure ripple effects).

   7   Routing attack: As highlighted in [ID-Daniel], routing
       information in IoT can be spoofed, altered, or replayed, in order
       to create routing loops, attract/repel network traffic, extend/
       shorten source routes, etc.  Other relevant routing attacks



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       include 1) Sinkhole attack (or blackhole attack), where an
       attacker declares himself to have a high-quality route/path to
       the base station, thus allowing him to do anything to all packets
       passing through it. 2) Selective forwarding, where an attacker
       may selectively forward packets or simply drop a packet. 3)
       Wormhole attack, where an attacker may record packets at one
       location in the network and tunnel them to another location,
       thereby influencing perceived network behaviour and potentially
       distorting statistics, thus greatly impacting the functionality
       of routing. 4) Sybil attack, whereby an attacker presents
       multiple identities to other things in the network.

   8   Privacy threat: The tracking of a thing's location and usage may
       pose a privacy risk to its users.  An attacker can infer
       information based on the information gathered about individual
       things, thus deducing behavioural patterns of the user of
       interest to him.  Such information can subsequently be sold to
       interested parties for marketing purposes and targeted
       advertizing.

   9   Denial-of-Service attack: Typically, things have tight memory and
       limited computation, they are thus vulnerable to resource
       exhaustion attack.  Attackers can continuously send requests to
       be processed by specific things so as to deplete their resources.
       This is especially dangerous in the IoTs since an attacker might
       be located in the backend and target resource-constrained devices
       in an LLN.  Additionally, DoS attack can be launched by
       physically jamming the communication channel, thus breaking down
       the T2T communication channel.  Network availability can also be
       disrupted by flooding the network with a large number of packets.

   The following table summarizes the security threats we identified
   above and the potential point of vulnerabilities at different layers
   of the communication stack.  We also include related RFCs that
   include a threat model that might apply to the IoTs.
















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              +------------------+------------------+------------------+
              | Manufacturing    | Installation/    | Operation        |
              |                  | Commissioning    |                  |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Thing's     | Device Cloning   |Substitution      |Privacy threat    |
 |Model       |                  |                  |Extraction of     |
 |            |                  |                  |security params   |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Application |                  |RFC2818           |RFC2818, Firmware |
 |Layer       |                  |RFC4016           |replacement       |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Transport   |                  |                  |Eavesdropping     |
 |Layer       |                  |Eavesdropping &   |Man-in-the-middle |
 +------------+------------------|Man-in-the-middle |------------------+
 |Network     |                  |attack            |RFC4919,DoS attack|
 |Layer       |                  |RFC4919, RFC5713  |Routing attack    |
 |            |                  |RFC3833, RFC3756  |RFC3833           |
 +------------+------------------+------------------+------------------+
 |Physical    |                  |                  |DoS attack        |
 |Layer       |                  |                  |                  |
 +-------------------------------+------------------+------------------+

                       The security threat analysis

                                 Figure 2

3.2.  Security Aspects

   The term security subsumes a wide range of different concepts.  In
   the first place, it refers to the basic provision of security
   services including confidentiality, authentication, integrity,
   authorization, non-repudiation, and availability, and some augmented
   services, such as duplicate detection and detection of stale packets
   (timeliness).  These security services can be implemented by a
   combination of cryptographic mechanisms, such as block ciphers, hash
   functions, or signature algorithms, and non-cryptographic mechanisms,
   which implement authorization and other security policy enforcement
   aspects.  For each of the cryptographic mechanisms, a solid key
   management infrastructure is fundamental to handling the required
   cryptographic keys, whereas for security policy enforcement, one
   needs to properly codify authorizations as a function of device roles
   and a security policy engine that implements these authorization
   checks and that can implement changes hereto throughout the system's
   lifecycle.

   In the context of the IoT, however, the security must not only focus
   on the required security services, but also how these are realized in
   the overall system and how the security functionalities are executed.



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   To this end, we use the following terminology to analyze and classify
   security aspects in the IoT:

   1   The security architecture refers to the system elements involved
       in the management of the security relationships between things
       and the way these security interactions are handled (e.g.,
       centralized or distributed) during the lifecycle of a thing.

   2   The security model of a node describes how the security
       parameters, processes, and applications are managed in a thing.
       This includes aspects such as process separation, secure storage
       of keying materials, etc.

   3   Security bootstrapping denotes the process by which a thing
       securely joins the IoT at a given location and point in time.
       Bootstrapping includes the authentication and authorization of a
       device as well as the transfer of security parameters allowing
       for its trusted operation in a given network.

   4   Network security describes the mechanisms applied within a
       network to ensure trusted operation of the IoT.  Specifically, it
       prevents attackers from endangering or modifying the expected
       operation of networked things.  Network security can include a
       number of mechanisms ranging from secure routing to data link
       layer and network layer security.

   5   Application security guarantees that only trusted instances of an
       application running in the IoT can communicate with each other,
       while illegitimate instances cannot interfere.






















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              ..........................
              :           +-----------+:
              :       *+*>|Application|*****
              :       *|  +-----------+:   *
              :       *|  +-----------+:   *
              :       *|->| Transport |:   *
              :    * _*|  +-----------+:   *
              :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
              :    *|  |->|  Network  |:   *
              :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
              :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *    *** Bootstrapping
              :    *|  +->|     L2    |:   *    ~~~ Application Security
              :    *|     +-----------+:   *
              :+--------+              :   *
              :|Security| Configuration:   *
              :|Service |   Entity     :   *
              :+--------+              :   *
              :........................:   *
                                           *
  .........................                *  .........................
  :+--------+             :                *  :             +--------+:
  :|Security|   Node B    :                *  :   Node A    |Security|:
  :|Service |             :                *  :             |Service |:
  :+--------+             :                *  :             +--------+:
  :    |     +-----------+:                *  :+-----------+     |*   :
  :    |  +->|Application|:                ****|Application|<*+* |*   :
  :    |  |  +-----------+:                   :+-----------+  |* |*   :
  :    |  |  +-----------+:                   :+-----------+  |* |*   :
  :    |  |->| Transport |~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~| Transport |<-|* |*   :
  :    |__|  +-----------+: ................. :+-----------+  |*_|*   :
  :       |  +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+  | *     :
  :       |->|  Network  |: : |  Network  | : :|  Network  |<-|       :
  :       |  +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+  |       :
  :       |  +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+  |       :
  :       +->|     L2    |: : |     L2    | : :|     L2    |<-+       :
  :          +-----------+: : +-----------+ : :+-----------+          :
  :.......................: :...............: :.......................:
                     Overview of Security Mechanisms.

                                 Figure 3

   We now discuss an exemplary security architecture relying on a
   configuration entity for the management of the system with regard to
   the introduced security aspects (see Figure 2).  Inspired by the
   security framework for routing over low power and lossy network
   [ID-Tsao], we show an example of security model and illustrates how
   different security concepts and the lifecycle phases map to the
   Internet communication stack.  Assume a centralized architecture in



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   which a configuration entity stores and manages the identities of the
   things associated with the system along with their cryptographic
   keys.  During the bootstrapping phase, each thing executes the
   bootstrapping protocol with the configuration entity, thus obtaining
   the required device identities and the keying material.  The security
   service on a thing in turn stores the received keying material for
   the network layer and application security mechanisms for secure
   communication.  Things can then securely communicate with each other
   during their operational phase by means of the employed network and
   application security mechanisms.


4.  State of the Art

   Nowadays, there exists a multitude of control protocols for the IoT.
   For BAC systems, the ZigBee standard [ZB], BACNet [BACNET], or DALI
   [DALI] play key roles.  Recent trends, however, focus on an all-IP
   approach for system control.

   In this setting, a number of IETF working groups are designing new
   protocols for resource constrained networks of smart things.  The
   6LoWPAN working group [WG-6LoWPAN] concentrates on the definition of
   methods and protocols for the efficient transmission and adaptation
   of IPv6 packets over IEEE 802.15.4 networks [RFC4944].  The CoRE
   working group [WG-CoRE] provides a framework for resource-oriented
   applications intended to run on constrained IP network (6LoWPAN). One
   of its main tasks is the definition of a lightweight version of the
   HTTP protocol, the Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP) [ID-CoAP],
   that runs over UDP and enables efficient application-level
   communication for things.

4.1.  IP-based Security Solutions

   In the context of the IP-based IoT solutions, consideration of TCP/IP
   security protocols is important as these protocols are designed to
   fit the IP network ideology and technology.  While a wide range of
   specialized as well as general-purpose key exchange and security
   solutions exist for the Internet domain, we discuss a number of
   protocols and procedures that have been recently discussed in the
   context of the above working groups.  The considered protocols are
   IKEv2/IPsec [RFC4306], TLS/SSL [RFC5246], DTLS [RFC5238], HIP
   [RFC5201][ID-Moskowitz], PANA [RFC5191], and EAP [RFC3748] in this
   Internet-Draft.  Application layer solutions such as SSH [RFC4251]
   also exist, however, these are currently not considered.  Figure 3
   depicts the relationships between the discussed protocols in the
   context of the security terminology introduced in Section 3.1.





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             ..........................
             :           +-----------+:
             :       *+*>|Application|*****     *** Bootstrapping
             :       *|  +-----------+:   *     ### Application Security
             :       *|  +-----------+:   *     === Network security
             :       *|->| Transport |:   *
             :    * _*|  +-----------+:   *
             :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
             :    *|  |->|  Network  |:   *--> -PANA/EAP
             :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *    -HIP
             :    *|  |  +-----------+:   *
             :    *|  +->|     L2    |:   *     ## DTLS
             :    *|     +-----------+:   *     ##
             :+--------+              :   *
             :|Security| Configuration:   *     [] HIP,IKEv2
             :|Service |   Entity     :   *     [] ESP/AH
             :+--------+              :   *
             :........................:   *
                                          *
 .........................                *    .........................
 :+--------+             :                *    :             +--------+:
 :|Security|   Node B    :                *    :   Node A    |Security|:
 :|Service |             :                *    :             |Service |:
 :+--------+             :     Secure     *    :             +--------+:
 :    |     +-----------+:     routing    *    :+-----------+     |*   :
 :    |  +->|Application|:    framework   ******|Application|<*+* |*   :
 :    |  |  +----##-----+:        |            :+----##-----+  |* |*   :
 :    |  |  +----##-----+:        |            :+----##-----+  |* |*   :
 :    |  |->| Transport |#########|#############| Transport |<-|* |*   :
 :    |__|  +----[]-----+:  ......|..........  :+----[]-----+  |*_|*   :
 :       |  +====[]=====+=====+===========+=====+====[]=====+  | *     :
 :       |->|| Network  |:  : |  Network  | :  :|  Network ||<-|       :
 :       |  +|----------+:  : +-----------+ :  :+----------|+  |       :
 :       |  +|----------+:  : +-----------+ :  :+----------|+  |       :
 :       +->||    L2    |:  : |     L2    | :  :|     L2   ||<-+       :
 :          +===========+=====+===========+=====+===========+          :
 :.......................:  :...............:  :.......................:
            Relationships between IP-based security protocols.

                                 Figure 4

   The Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2)/IPsec and the Host Identity
   protocol (HIP) reside at or above the network layer in the OSI model.
   Both protocols are able to perform an authenticated key exchange and
   set up the IPsec transforms for secure payload delivery.  Currently,
   there are also ongoing efforts to create a HIP variant coined Diet
   HIP [ID-HIP] that takes lossy low-power networks into account at the
   authentication and key exchange level.



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   Transport Layer Security (TLS) and its datagram-oriented variant DTLS
   secure transport-layer connections.  TLS provides security for TCP
   and requires a reliable transport, while DTLS secures and uses
   datagram-oriented protocols such as UDP.  Both protocols are
   intentionally kept similar and share the same ideology and cipher
   suites.

   The Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) is an authentication
   framework supporting multiple authentication methods.  EAP runs
   directly over the data link layer and, thus, does not require the
   deployment of IP.  It supports duplicate detection and
   retransmission, but does not allow for packet fragmentation.  The
   Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access (PANA) is a
   network-layer transport for EAP that enables network access
   authentication between clients and the network infrastructure.  In
   EAP terms, PANA is a UDP-based EAP lower layer that runs between the
   EAP peer and the EAP authenticator.

4.2.  Wireless Sensor Network Security and Beyond

   A variety of key agreement and privacy protection protocols that are
   tailored to IoT scenarios have been introduced in the literature. For
   instance, random key pre-distribution schemes [PROC-Chan] or more
   centralized solutions, such as SPINS [JOURNAL-Perrig], have been
   proposed for key establishment in wireless sensor networks.  The
   ZigBee standard [ZB] for sensor networks defines a security
   architecture based on an online trust center that is in charge of
   handling the security relationships within a ZigBee network. Personal
   privacy in ubiquitous computing has been studied extensively, e.g.,
   in [THESIS-Langheinrich].  Due to resource constraints and the
   specialization to meet specific requirements, these solutions often
   implement a collapsed cross layer optimized communication stack
   (e.g., without task-specific network layers and layered packet
   headers).  Consequently, they cannot directly be adapted to the
   requirements of the Internet due to the nature of their design.

   Despite important steps done by, e.g., Gupta et al.  [PROC-Gupta], to
   show the feasibility of an end-to-end standard security architecture
   for the embedded Internet, the Internet and the IoT domain still do
   not fit together easily.  This is mainly due to the fact that IoT
   security solutions are often tailored to the specific scenario
   requirements without considering interoperability with Internet
   protocols.  On the other hand, the direct use of existing Internet
   security protocols in the IoT might lead to inefficient or insecure
   operation as we show in our discussion below.






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5.  Challenges for a Secure Internet of Things

   In this section, we take a closer look at the various security
   challenges in the operational and technical features of the IoT and
   then discuss how existing Internet security protocols cope with these
   technical and conceptual challenges through the lifecycle of a thing.
   Table 1 summarizes which requirements need to be met in the lifecycle
   phases as well as the considered protocols.  The structure of this
   section follows the structure of the table.  This discussion should
   neither be understood as a comprehensive evaluation of all protocols,
   nor can it cover all possible aspects of IoT security.  Yet, it aims
   at showing concrete limitations of existing Internet security
   protocols in some areas rather than giving an abstract discussion
   about general properties of the protocols.  In this regard, the
   discussion handles issues that are most important from the authors'
   perspectives.

5.1.  Constraints and Heterogeneous Communication

   Coupling resource constrained networks and the powerful Internet is a
   challenge because the resulting heterogeneity of both networks
   complicates protocol design and system operation.  In the following
   we briefly discuss the resource constraints of IoT devices and the
   consequences for the use of Internet Protocols in the IoT domain.

5.1.1.  Tight Resource Constraints

   The IoT is a resource-constrained network that relies on lossy and
   low-bandwidth channels for communication between small nodes,
   regarding CPU, memory, and energy budget.  These characteristics
   directly impact the threats to and the design of security protocols
   for the IoT domain.  First, the use of small packets, e.g., IEEE
   802.15.4 supports 127-byte sized packets at the physical layer, may
   result in fragmentation of larger packets of security protocols. This
   may open new attack vectors for state exhaustion DoS attacks, which
   is especially tragic, e.g., if the fragmentation is caused by large
   key exchange messages of security protocols.  Moreover, packet
   fragmentation commonly downgrades the overall system performance due
   to fragment losses and the need for retransmissions.  For instance,
   fate-sharing packet flight as implemented by DTLS might aggravate the
   resulting performance loss.










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              +--------------------------------------------------------+
              | Bootstrapping phase        | Operational Phase         |
 +------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
 |            |Incremental deployment      |End-to-End security        |
 |Requirements|Identity and key management |Mobility support           |
 |            |Privacy-aware identification|Group membership management|
 |            |Group creation              |                           |
 +------------+--------------------------------------------------------+
 |            |IKEv2                       |IKEv2/MOBIKE               |
 |Protocols   |TLS/DTLS                    |TLS/DTLS                   |
 |            |HIP/Diet-HIP                |HIP/Diet-HIP               |
 |            |PANA/EAP                    |                           |
 +---------------------------------------------------------------------+

            Relationships between IP-based security protocols.

                                 Figure 5

   The size and number of messages should be minimized to reduce memory
   requirements and optimize bandwidth usage.  In this context, layered
   approaches involving a number of protocols might lead to worse
   performance in resource-constrained devices since they combine the
   headers of the different protocols.  In some settings, protocol
   negotiation can increase the number of exchanged messages.  To
   improve performance during basic procedures such as, e.g.,
   bootstrapping, it might be a good strategy to perform those
   procedures at a lower layer.

   Small CPUs and scarce memory limit the usage of resource-expensive
   cryptoprimitives such as public-key cryptography as used in most
   Internet security standards.  This is especially true, if the basic
   cryptoblocks need to be frequently used or the underlying application
   demands a low delay.

   Independently from the development in the IoT domain, all discussed
   security protocols show efforts to reduce the cryptographic cost of
   the required public-key-based key exchanges and signatures with
   ECC[RFC5246][RFC5903][ID-Moskowitz][ID-HIP].  Moreover, all protocols
   have been revised in the last years to enable crypto agility, making
   cryptographic primitives interchangeable.  Diet HIP takes the
   reduction of the cryptographic load one step further by focusing on
   cryptographic primitives that are to be expected to be enabled in
   hardware on IEEE 802.15.4 compliant devices.  For example, Diet HIP
   does not require cryptographic hash functions but uses a CMAC [NIST]
   based mechanism, which can directly use the AES hardware available in
   standard sensor platforms.  However, these improvements are only a
   first step in reducing the computation and communication overhead of
   Internet protocols.  The question remains if other approaches can be



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   applied to leverage key agreement in these heavily resource-
   constrained environments.

   A further fundamental need refers to the limited energy budget
   available to IoT nodes.  Careful protocol (re)design and usage is
   required to reduce not only the energy consumption during normal
   operation, but also under DoS attacks.  Since the energy consumption
   of IoT devices differs from other device classes, judgments on the
   energy consumption of a particular protocol cannot be made without
   tailor-made IoT implementations.

5.1.2.  Denial-of-Service Resistance

   The tight memory and processing constraints of things naturally
   alleviate resource exhaustion attacks.  Especially in unattended T2T
   communication, such attacks are difficult to notice before the
   service becomes unavailable (e.g., because of battery or memory
   exhaustion).  As a DoS countermeasure, DTLS, IKEv2, HIP, and Diet HIP
   implement return routability checks based on a cookie mechanism to
   delay the establishment of state at the responding host until the
   address of the initiating host is verified.  The effectiveness of
   these defenses strongly depends on the routing topology of the
   network.  Return routability checks are particularly effective if
   hosts cannot receive packets addressed to other hosts and if IP
   addresses present meaningful information as is the case in today's
   Internet.  However, they are less effective in broadcast media or
   when attackers can influence the routing and addressing of hosts
   (e.g., if hosts contribute to the routing infrastructure in ad-hoc
   networks and meshes).

   In addition, HIP implements a puzzle mechanism that can force the
   initiator of a connection (and potential attacker) to solve
   cryptographic puzzles with variable difficulties.  Puzzle-based
   defense mechanisms are less dependent on the network topology but
   perform poorly if CPU resources in the network are heterogeneous
   (e.g., if a powerful Internet host attacks a thing).  Increasing the
   puzzle difficulty under attack conditions can easily lead to
   situations, where a powerful attacker can still solve the puzzle
   while weak IoT clients cannot and are excluded from communicating
   with the victim.  Still, puzzle-based approaches are a viable option
   for sheltering IoT devices against unintended overload caused by
   misconfigured or malfunctioning things.

5.1.3.  Protocol Translation and End-to-End Security

   Even though 6LoWPAN and CoAP progress towards reducing the gap
   between Internet protocols and the IoT, they do not target protocol
   specifications that are identical to their Internet pendants due to



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   performance reasons.  Hence, more or less subtle differences between
   IoT protocols and Internet protocols will remain.  While these
   differences can easily be bridged with protocol translators at
   gateways, they become major obstacles if end-to-end security measures
   between IoT devices and Internet hosts are used.

   Cryptographic payload processing applies message authentication codes
   or encryption to packets.  These protection methods render the
   protected parts of the packets immutable as rewriting is either not
   possible because a) the relevant information is encrypted and
   inaccessible to the gateway or b) rewriting integrity-protected parts
   of the packet would invalidate the end-to-end integrity protection.

   There are essentially four solutions for this problem:

   1   Sharing symmetric keys with gateways enables gateways to
       transform (e.g., de-compress, convert, etc.) packets and re-apply
       the security measures after transformation.  This method abandons
       end-to-end security and is only applicable to simple scenarios
       with a rudimentary security model.

   2   Reusing the Internet wire format in the IoT makes conversion
       between IoT and Internet protocols unnecessary.  However, it
       leads to poor performance because IoT specific optimizations
       (e.g., stateful or stateless compression) are not possible.

   3   Selectively protecting vital and immutable packet parts with a
       MAC or with encryption requires a careful balance between
       performance and security.  Otherwise, this approach will either
       result in poor performance (protect as much as possible) or poor
       security (compress and transform as much as possible).

   4   Message authentication codes that sustain transformation can be
       realized by considering the order of transformation and
       protection (e.g., by creating a signature before compression so
       that the gateway can decompress the packet without recalculating
       the signature).  This enables IoT specific optimizations but is
       more complex and may require application-specific transformations
       before security is applied.  Moreover, it cannot be used with
       encrypted data because the lack of cleartext prevents gateways
       from transforming packets.

   To the best of our knowledge, none of the mentioned security
   protocols provides a fully customizable solution in this problem
   space.  In fact, they usually offer an end-to-end secured connection.
   An exception is the usage layered approach as might be PANA and EAP.
   In such a case, this configuration (i) allows for a number of
   configurations regarding the location of, e.g., the EAP authenticator



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   and authentication server and (ii) the layered architecture might
   allow for authentication at different places.  The drawback of this
   approach, however, lies in its high signaling traffic volume compared
   to other approaches.  Hence, future work is required to ensure
   security, performance and interoperability between IoT and the
   Internet.

5.2.  Bootstrapping of a Security Domain

   Creating a security domain from a set of previously unassociated IoT
   devices is a key operation in the lifecycle of a thing and in the IoT
   network.  In this section, we discuss general forms of network
   operation, how to communicate a thing's identity and the privacy
   implications arising from the communication of this identity.

5.2.1.  Distributed vs. Centralized Architecture and Operation

   Most things might be required to support both centralized and
   distributed operation patterns.  Distributed thing-to-thing
   communication might happen on demand, for instance, when two things
   form an ad-hoc security domain to cooperatively fulfill a certain
   task.  Likewise, nodes may communicate with a backend service located
   in the Internet without a central security manager.  The same nodes
   may also be part of a centralized architecture with a dedicated node
   being responsible for the security management for group communication
   between things in the IoT domain.  In today's IoT, most common
   architectures are fully centralized in the sense that all the
   security relationships within a segment are handled by a central
   party.  In the ZigBee standard, this entity is the trust center.
   Current proposals for 6LoWPAN/CoRE identify the 6LoWPAN Border Router
   (6LBR) as such a device.

   A centralized architecture allows for central management of devices
   and keying materials as well as for the backup of cryptographic keys.
   However, it also imposes some limitations.  First, it represents a
   single point of failure.  This is a major drawback, e.g., when key
   agreement between two devices requires online connectivity to the
   central node.  Second, it limits the possibility to create ad-hoc
   security domains without dedicated security infrastructure.  Third,
   it codifies a more static world view, where device roles are cast in
   stone, rather than a more dynamic world view that recognizes that
   networks and devices, and their roles and ownership, may change over
   time (e.g., due to device replacement and hand-over of control).

   Decentralized architectures, on the other hand, allow creating ad-hoc
   security domains that might not require a single online management
   entity and are operative in a much more stand-alone manner.  The ad-
   hoc security domains can be added to a centralized architecture at a



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   later point in time, allowing for central or remote management.

5.2.2.  Bootstrapping a thing's identity and keying materials

   Bootstrapping refers to the process by which a device is associated
   to another one, to a network, or to a system.  The way it is
   performed depends upon the architecture: centralized or distributed.
   It is important to realize that bootstrapping may involve different
   types of information, ranging from network parameters and information
   on device capabilities and their presumed functionality, to
   management information related to, e.g., resource scheduling and
   trust initialization/management.  Furthermore, bootstrapping may
   occur in stages during the lifecycle of a device and may include
   provisioning steps already conducted during device manufacturing
   (e.g., imprinting a unique identifier or a root certificate into a
   device during chip testing), further steps during module
   manufacturing (e.g., setting of application-based configurations,
   such as temperature read-out frequencies and push-thresholds), during
   personalization (e.g., fine-tuned settings depending on installation
   context), during hand-over (e.g., transfer of ownership from supplier
   to user), and, e.g., in preparation of operation in a specific
   network.  In what follows, we focus on bootstrapping of security-
   related information, since bootstrapping of all other information can
   be conducted as ordinary secured communications, once a secure and
   authentic channel between devices has been put in place.

   In a distributed approach, a Diffie-Hellman type of handshake can
   allow two peers to agree on a common secret.  In general, IKEv2, HIP,
   TLS, DTLS, can perform key exchanges and the setup of security
   associations without online connections to a trust center.  If we do
   not consider the resource limitations of things, certificates and
   certificate chains can be employed to securely communicate
   capabilities in such a decentralized scenario.  HIP and Diet HIP do
   not directly use certificates for identifying a host, however
   certificate handling capabilities exist for HIP and the same protocol
   logic could be used for Diet HIP.  It is noteworthy, that Diet HIP
   does not require a host to implement cryptographic hashes.  Hence,
   some lightweight implementations of Diet HIP might not be able to
   verify certificates unless a hash function is implemented by the
   host.

   In a centralized architecture, preconfigured keys or certificates
   held by a thing can be used for the distribution of operational keys
   in a given security domain.  A current proposal [ID-OFlynn] refers to
   the use of PANA for the transport of EAP messages between the PANA
   client (the joining thing) and the PANA Authentication Agent (PAA),
   the 6LBR.  EAP is thereby used to authenticate the identity of the
   joining thing.  After the successful authentication, the PANA PAA



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   provides the joining thing with fresh network and security
   parameters.

   IKEv2, HIP, TLS, and DTLS could be applied as well for the transfer
   of configuration parameters in a centralized scenario.  While HIP's
   cryptographic secret identifies the thing, the other protocols do not
   represent primary identifiers but are used instead to bind other
   identifiers such as the operation keys to the public-key identities.

   In addition to the protocols, operational aspects during
   bootstrapping are of key importance as well.  Many other standard
   Internet protocols assume that the identity of a host is either
   available by using secondary services like certificate authorities or
   secure name resolution (e.g., DNSsec) or can be provided over a side
   channel (entering passwords via screen and keyboard).  While these
   assumptions may hold in traditional networks, intermittent
   connectivity, localized communication, and lack of input methods
   complicate the situation for the IoT.

   The order in which the things within a security domain are
   bootstrapped plays an important role as well.  In [RFC6345], the PANA
   relay element is introduced, relaying PANA messages between a PaC
   (joining thing) and PAA of a segment [ID-OFlynn].  This approach
   forces commissioning based on distance to PAA, i.e., things can only
   be bootstrapped hop-by-hop starting from those closer to the PAA, all
   things that are 1-hop away are bootstrapped first, followed by those
   that are 2-hop away, and so on.  Such an approach might impose
   important limitations on actual use cases in which, e.g., an
   installer without technical background has to roll-out the system.

5.2.3.  Privacy-aware Identification

   During the last years, the introduction of RFID tags has raised
   privacy concerns because anyone might access and track tags.  As the
   IoT involves not only passive devices, but also includes active and
   sensing devices, the IoT might irrupt even deeper in people's privacy
   spheres.  Thus, IoT protocols should be designed to avoid these
   privacy threats during bootstrapping and operation where deemed
   necessary.  In H2T and T2T interactions, privacy-aware identifiers
   might be used to prevent unauthorized user tracking.  Similarly,
   authentication can be used to prove membership of a group without
   revealing unnecessary individual information.

   TLS and DTLS provide the option of only authenticating the responding
   host.  This way, the initiating host can stay anonymous.  If
   authentication for the initiating host is required as well, either
   public-key certificates or authentication via the established
   encrypted payload channel can be employed.  Such a setup allows to



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   only reveal the responder's identity to possible eavesdroppers.

   HIP and IKEv2 use public-key identities to authenticate the initiator
   of a connection.  These identities could easily be traced if no
   additional protection were in place.  IKEv2 transmits this
   information in an encrypted packet.  Likewise, HIP provides the
   option to keep the identity of the initiator secret from
   eavesdroppers by encrypting it with the symmetric key generated
   during the handshake.  However, Diet HIP cannot provide a similar
   feature because the identity of the initiator simultaneously serves
   as static Diffie-Hellman key.  Note that all discussed solutions
   could use anonymous public-key identities that change for each
   communication.  However, such identity cycling may require a
   considerable computational effort for generating new asymmetric key
   pairs.  In addition to the built-in privacy features of the here
   discussed protocols, a large body of anonymity research for key
   exchange protocols exists.  However, the comparison of these
   protocols and protocol extensions is out of scope for this work.

5.3.  Operation

   After the bootstrapping phase, the system enters the operational
   phase.  During the operational phase, things can relate to the state
   information created during the bootstrapping phase in order to
   exchange information securely and in an authenticated fashion.  In
   this section, we discuss aspects of communication patterns and
   network dynamics during this phase.

5.3.1.  End-to-End Security

   Providing end-to-end security is of great importance to address and
   secure individual T2T or H2T communication within one IoT domain.
   Moreover, end-to-end security associations are an important measure
   to bridge the gap between the IoT and the Internet.  IKEv2 and HIP,
   TLS and DTLS provide end-to-end security services including peer
   entity authentication, end-to-end encryption and integrity protection
   above the network layer and the transport layer respectively.  Once
   bootstrapped, these functions can be carried out without online
   connections to third parties, making the protocols applicable for
   decentralized use in the IoT.  However, protocol translation by
   intermediary nodes may invalidate end-to-end protection measures (see
   Section 5.1).

5.3.2.  Group Membership and Security

   In addition to end-to-end security, group key negotiation is an
   important security service for the T2Ts and Ts2T communication
   patterns in the IoT as efficient local broadcast and multicast relies



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   on symmetric group keys.

   All discussed protocols only cover unicast communication and
   therefore do not focus on group-key establishment.  However, the
   Diffie-Hellman keys that are used in IKEv2 and HIP could be used for
   group Diffie-Hellman key-negotiations.  Conceptually, solutions that
   provide secure group communication at the network layer (IPsec/IKEv2,
   HIP/Diet HIP) may have an advantage regarding the cryptographic
   overhead compared to application-focused security solutions (TLS/
   DTLS).  This is due to the fact that application-focused solutions
   require cryptographic operations per group application, whereas
   network layer approaches may allow to share secure group associations
   between multiple applications (e.g., for neighbor discovery and
   routing or service discovery).  Hence, implementing shared features
   lower in the communication stack can avoid redundant security
   measures.

   A number of group key solutions have been developed in the context of
   the IETF working group MSEC in the context of the MIKEY architecture
   [WG-MSEC][RFC4738].  These are specifically tailored for multicast
   and group broadcast applications in the Internet and should also be
   considered as candidate solutions for group key agreement in the IoT.
   The MIKEY architecture describes a coordinator entity that
   disseminates symmetric keys over pair-wise end-to-end secured
   channels.  However, such a centralized approach may not be applicable
   in a distributed environment, where the choice of one or several
   coordinators and the management of the group key is not trivial.

5.3.3.  Mobility and IP Network Dynamics

   It is expected that many things (e.g., wearable sensors, and user
   devices) will be mobile in the sense that they are attached to
   different networks during the lifetime of a security association.
   Built-in mobility signaling can greatly reduce the overhead of the
   cryptographic protocols because unnecessary and costly re-
   establishments of the session (possibly including handshake and key
   agreement) can be avoided.  IKEv2 supports host mobility with the
   MOBIKE [RFC4555][RFC4621] extension.  MOBIKE refrains from applying
   heavyweight cryptographic extensions for mobility.  However, MOBIKE
   mandates the use of IPsec tunnel mode which requires to transmit an
   additional IP header in each packet.  This additional overhead could
   be alleviated by using header compression methods or the Bound End-
   to-End Tunnel (BEET) mode [ID-Nikander], a hybrid of tunnel and
   transport mode with smaller packet headers.

   HIP offers a simple yet effective mobility management by allowing
   hosts to signal changes to their associations [RFC5206].  However,
   slight adjustments might be necessary to reduce the cryptographic



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   costs, for example, by making the public-key signatures in the
   mobility messages optional.  Diet HIP does not define mobility yet
   but it is sufficiently similar to HIP to employ the same mechanisms.
   TLS and DTLS do not have standards for mobility support, however,
   work on DTLS mobility exists in the form of an Internet draft
   [ID-Williams].  The specific need for IP-layer mobility mainly
   depends on the scenario in which nodes operate.  In many cases,
   mobility support by means of a mobile gateway may suffice to enable
   mobile IoT networks, such as body sensor networks.  However, if
   individual things change their point of network attachment while
   communicating, mobility support may gain importance.


6.  Security Suites for the IP-based Internet of Things

   Different applications have different security requirements and needs
   and, depending on various factors, such as device capability,
   availability of network infrastructure, security services needed,
   usage, etc., the required security protection may vary from "no
   security" to "full-blown security".  For example, applications may
   have different needs regarding authentication and confidentiality.
   While some application might not require any authentication at all,
   others might require strong end-to-end authentication.  In terms of
   secure bootstrapping of keys, some applications might assume the
   existence and online availability of a central key-distribution-
   center (KDC) within the 6LoWPAN network to distribute and manage
   keys; while other applications cannot rely on such a central party or
   their availability.

   Thus, it is essential to define security profiles to better tailor
   security solutions for different applications with the same
   characteristics and requirements.  This provides a means of grouping
   applications into profiles and then defines the minimal required
   security primitives to enable and support the security needs of the
   profile.  The security elements in a security profile can be
   classified according to Section 3.1, namely:

   1   Security architecture,

   2   Security model,

   3   Security bootstrapping,

   4   Network security, and







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   5   Application security.

   In order to (i) guide the design process by identifying open gaps;
   (ii) allow for later interoperability; and (iii) prevent possible
   security misconfigurations, this section defines a number of generic
   security profiles with different security needs.  Each security
   profile is identified by:

   1   a short description,

   2   an exemplary application that might use/require such a security
       policy,

   3   the security requirements for each of the above security aspects
       according to our classification in Section 3.1.

   These security profiles can serve to guide the standardization
   process, since these explicitly describe the basic functionalities
   and protocols required to get different use cases up and running.  It
   can allow for later interoperability since different manufacturers
   can describe the implemented security profile in their products.
   Finally, the security profiles can avoid possible security
   misconfigurations, since each security profile can be bound to a
   different application area so that it can be clearly defined which
   security protocols and approaches can be applied where and under
   which circumstances.

   Note that each of these security profiles aim at summarizing the
   required security requirements for different applications and at
   providing a set of initial security features.  In other words, these
   profiles reflect the need for different security configurations,
   depending on the threat and trust models of the underlying
   applications.  In this sense, this section does not provide an
   overview of existing protocols as done in previous sections of the
   Internet Draft, but it rather explicitly describes what should be in
   place to ensure secure system operation.  Observe also that this list
   of security profiles is not exhaustive and that it should be
   considered just as an example not related to existing legal
   regulations for any existing application.  These security profiles
   are summarized in the table below:











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             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             | Application     |          Description                  |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_0 |No security needs|6LoWPAN/CoAP is used without security  |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |Home usage       |Enables operation between home things  |
  |          |                 |without interaction with central device|
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |Managed Home     |Enables operation between home things. |
  |          | usage           |Interaction with a central and local   |
  |          |                 |device is possible                     |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |Industrial usage |Enables operation between things.      |
  |          |                 |Relies on central (local or backend)   |
  |          |                 |device for security                    |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |Advanced         |Enables ad-hoc operation between things|
  |          |Industrial usage |and relies on central device or        |
  |          |                 |on a collection of control devices     |
  +----------+-----------------+---------------------------------------+


                 Security profiles and application areas.

                                 Figure 6

   The classification in the table considers different potential
   applications and situations in which their security needs change due
   to different operational features (network size, existence of a
   central device, connectivity to the Internet, importance of the
   exchanged information, etc) or threat model (what are the assets that
   an attacker looks for).  As already pointed out, this set of
   scenarios is exemplary and they should be further discussed based on
   a broader consensus.

   SecProf_0 is meant for any application that does not require
   security.  Examples include applications during system development,
   system testing, or some very basic applications in which security is
   not required at all.

   The second security suite (SecProf_1) is catered for environments in
   which 6LoWPAN/CoAP can be used to enable communication between things
   in an ad-hoc manner and the security requirements are minimal.  An
   example, is a home application in which two devices should exchange
   information and no further connection with other devices (local or
   with a backend) is required.  In this scenario, value of the
   exchanged information is low and that it usually happen in a confined
   room, thus, it is possible to have a short period of time during



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   which initial secrets can be exchanged in the clear.  Due to this
   fact, there is no requirement to enable devices from different
   manufacturers to interoperate in a secure way (keys are just
   exchanged).  The expected network size of applications using this
   profile is expected to be small such that the provision of network
   security, e.g., secure routing, is of low importance.

   The next security suite (SecProf_2) represents an evolution of
   SecProf_1 in which, e.g., home devices, can be managed locally.  A
   first possibility for the securing domain management refers to the
   creation of a centrally managed security domain without any
   connectivity to the Internet.  The central device used for management
   can serve as, e.g., a key distribution center including policies for
   key update, storage, etc.  The presence of a central device can help
   in the management of larger networks.  Network security becomes more
   relevant in this scenario since the 6LoWPAN/CoAP network can be prone
   to Denial of Service attacks (e.g., flooding if L2 is not protected)
   or routing attacks.

   SecProf_3 considers that a central device is always required for
   network management.  Example applications of this profile include
   building control and automation, sensor networks for industrial use,
   environmental monitoring, etc.  As before, the network manager can be
   located in the 6LoWPAN/CoAP network and handle key management.  In
   this case, the first association of devices to the network is
   required to be done in a secure way.  In other words, the threat
   model requires measurements to protect against any vulterable period
   of time.  This step can involve the secure transmission of keying
   materials used for network security at different layers.  The
   information exchanged in the network is considered to be valuable and
   it should be protected in the sense of pairwise links.  Commands
   should be secured and broadcast should be secured with entity
   authentication [ID-CoAPMulticast].  Network should be protected from
   attacks.  A further extension to this use case is to allow for remote
   management.  A "backend manager" is in charge of managing SW or
   information exchanged or collected within the 6LoWPAN/CoAP network.
   This requires connection of devices to the Internet over a 6LBR
   involving a number of new threats that were not present before.  A
   list of potential attacks include: resource-exhaustion attacks from
   the Internet; amplification attacks; trust issues related a HTTP-CoAP
   proxy [ID-proHTTPCoAP], etc.  This use case requires protecting the
   communication from a device in the backend to a device in the
   6LoWPAN/CoAP network, end-to-end.  This use case also requires
   measures to provide the 6LBR with the capability of dropping fake
   requests coming from the Internet.  This becomes especially
   challenging when the 6LBR is not trusted and access to the exchanged
   information is limited; and even more in the case of a HTTP-CoAP
   proxy since protocol translation is required.  This use case should



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   take care of protecting information accessed from the backend due to
   privacy issues (e.g., information such as type of devices, location,
   usage, type and amount of exchanged information, or mobility patterns
   can be gathered at the backend threatening the privacy sphere of
   users) so that only required information is disclosed.

   The last security suite (SecProf_4) essentially represents
   interoperability of all the security profiles defined previously.  It
   considers applications with some additional requirements regarding
   operation such as: (i) ad-hoc establishment of security relationships
   between things (potentially from different manufacturers) in non-
   secure environments or (ii) dynamic roaming of things between
   different 6LoWPAN/CoAP security domains.  Such operational
   requirements pose additional security requirements, e.g., in addition
   to secure bootstrapping of a device within a 6LoWPAN/CoAP security
   domain and the secure transfer of network operational key, there is a
   need to enable inter-domains secure communication to facilitate data
   sharing.

   The above description illustrates how different applications of
   6LoWPAN/CoAP networks involve different security needs.  In the
   following sections, we summarize the expected security features or
   capabilities for each the security profile with regards to "Security
   Architecture", "Security Model", "Security Bootstrapping", "Network
   Security", and "Application Security".

6.1.  Security Architecture

   The choice of security architecture has many implications regarding
   key management, access control, or security scope.  A distributed (or
   ad-hoc) architecture means that security relationships between things
   are setup on the fly between a number of objects and kept in a
   decentralized fashion.  A locally centralized security architecture
   means that a central device, e.g., the 6LBR, handles the keys for all
   the devices in the security domain.  Alternatively, a central
   security architecture could also refer to the fact that smart objects
   are managed from the backend.  The security architecture for the
   different security profiles is classified as follows.













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             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |                 Description                             |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_0 |                     -                                   |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |                Distributed                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |     Distributed able to move centralized (local)        |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |         Centralized (local &/or backend)                |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |      Distributed & centralized (local &/or backend)     |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+


          Security architectures in different security profiles.

                                 Figure 7

   In "SecProf_1", management mechanisms for the distributed assignment
   and management of keying materials is required.  Since this is a very
   simple use case, access control to the security domain can be enabled
   by means of a common secret known to all devices.  In the next
   security suite (SecProf_2), a central device can assume key
   management responsibilities and handle the access to the network. The
   last two security suites (SecProf_3 and SecProf_4) further allow for
   the management of devices or some keying materials from the backend.

6.2.  Security Model

   While some applications might involve very resource-constrained
   things such as, e.g., a humidity, pollution sensor, other
   applications might target more powerful devices aimed at more exposed
   applications.  Security parameters such as keying materials,
   certificates, etc must be protected in the thing, for example by
   means of tamper-resistant hardware.  Keys may be shared across a
   thing's networking stack to provide authenticity and confidentiality
   in each networking layer.  This would minimize the number of key
   establishment/agreement handshake and incurs less overhead for
   constrained thing.  While more advance applications may require key
   separation at different networking layers, and possibly process
   separation and sandboxing to isolate one application from another. In
   this sense, this section reflects the fact that different
   applications require different sets of security mechanisms.







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             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_0 |  -                                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |No tamper resistant                                      |
  |          |Sharing keys between layers                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |No tamper resistant                                      |
  |          |Sharing keys between layers                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |Tamper resistant                                         |
  |          |Key and process separation                               |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |(no) Tamper resistant                                    |
  |          |Sharing keys between layers/Key and process separation   |
  |          |Sandbox                                                  |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+


           Thing security models in different security profiles.

                                 Figure 8

6.3.  Security Bootstrapping and Management

   Bootstrapping refers to the process by which a thing initiates its
   life within a security domain and includes the initialization of
   secure and/or authentic parameters bound to the thing and at least
   one other device in the network.  Here, different mechanisms may be
   used to achieve confidentiality and/or authenticity of these
   parameters, depending on deployment scenario assumptions and the
   communication channel(s) used for passing these parameters.  The
   simplest mechanism for initial set-up of secure and authentic
   parameters is via communication in the clear using a physical
   interface (USB, wire, chip contact, etc.).  Here, one commonly
   assumes this communication channel is secure, since eavesdropping
   and/or manipulation of this interface would generally require access
   to the physical medium and, thereby, to one or both of the devices
   themselves.  This mechanism was used with the so-called original
   "resurrecting duckling" model, as introduced in [PROC-Stajano].  This
   technique may also be used securely in wireless, rather than wired,
   set-ups, if the prospect of eavesdropping and/or manipulating this
   channel are dim (a so-called "location-limited" channel [PROC-
   Smetters-04, PROC-Smetters-02]).  Examples hereof include the
   communication of secret keys in the clear using near field
   communication (NFC) - where the physical channel is purported to have
   very limited range (roughly 10cm), thereby thwarting eavesdropping by



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   far-away adversarial devices, and in-the-clear communication during a
   small time window (triggered by, e.g., a button-push) - where
   eavesdropping is presumed absent during this small time window.  With
   the use of public-key based techniques, assumptions on the
   communication channel can be relaxed even further, since then the
   cryptographic technique itself provides for confidentiality of the
   channel set-up and the location-limited channel - or use of
   certificates - rules out man-in-the-middle attacks, thereby providing
   authenticity [PROC-Smetters-02].  The same result can be obtained
   using password-based public-key protocols [SPEKE], where authenticity
   depends on the (weak) password not being guessed during execution of
   the protocol.  It should be noted that while most of these techniques
   realize a secure and authentic channel for passing parameters, these
   generally do not provide for explicit authorization.  As an example,
   with use of certificate-based public-key based techniques, one may
   obtain hard evidence on whom one shares secret and/or authentic
   parameters with, but this does not answer the question as to whether
   one wishes to share this information at all with this specifically
   identified device (the latter usually involves a human-decision
   element).  Thus, the bootstrapping mechanisms above should generally
   be complemented by mechanisms that regulate (security policies for)
   authorization.  Furthermore, the type of bootstrapping is very
   related to the required type of security architecture.  Distributed
   bootstrapping means that a pair of devices can setup a security
   relationship on the fly, without interaction with a central device
   elsewhere within the system.  In many cases, it is handy to have a
   distributed bootstrapping protocol based on existing security
   protocols (e.g., DTLS in CoAP) required for other purposes: this
   reduces the amount of required software.  A centralized boostrapping
   protocol is one in which a central device manages the security
   relationships within a network.  This can happen locally, e.g.,
   handled by the 6LBR, or remotely, e.g., from a server connected via
   the Internet.  The security bootstrapping for the different security
   profiles is as follows.

















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             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_0 |  -                                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |* Distributed, (e.g., Resurrecting duckling)             |
  |          |* First key distribution happens in the clear            |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |* Distributed, (e.g., Resurrecting duckling )            |
  |          |* Centralized (local), 6LBR acts as KDC                  |
  |          |* First key distribution occurs in the clear, if the KDC |
  |          |  is available, the KDC can manage network access        |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |* 6LBR acts as KDC. It handles node joining, provides    |
  |          |  them with keying material from L2 to application layers|
  |          |* Bootstrapping occurs in a secure way - either in secure|
  |          |  environment or the security mechanisms ensure that     |
  |          |  eavesdropping is not possible.                         |
  |          |* KDC and backend can implement secure methods for       |
  |          |  network access                                         |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |* As in SecProf_3.                                       |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+


       Security boostrapping methods in different security profiles

                                 Figure 9

6.4.  Network Security

   Network security refers to the mechanisms used to ensure the secure
   transport of 6LoWPAN frames.  This involves a multitude of issues
   ranging from secure discovery, frame authentication, routing
   security, detection of replay, secure group communication, etc.
   Network security is important to thwart potential attacks such as
   denial-of-service (e.g., through message flooding) or routing
   attacks.

   The Internet Draft [ID-Tsao] presents a very good overview of attacks
   and security needs classified according to the confidentiality,
   integrity, and availability needs.  A potential limitation is that
   there exist no differentiation in security between different use
   cases and the framework is limited to L3.  The security suites
   gathered in the present ID aim at solving this by allowing for a more
   flexible selection of security needs at L2 and L3.





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             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_0 |  -                                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |* Network key creating a home security domain at L2      |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Secure multicast does not ensure origin authentication |
  |          |* No need for secure routing at L3                       |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |* Network key creating a home security domain at L2      |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Secure multicast does not ensure origin authentication |
  |          |* No need for secure routing at L3                       |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |* Network key creating an industry security domain at L2 |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Secure routing needed (integrity & availability) at L3 |
  |          |  within 6LoWPAN/CoAP                                    |
  |          |* Secure multicast requires origin authentication        |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |* Network key creating an industry security domain at L2 |
  |          |  ensuring authentication and freshness of exchanged data|
  |          |* Inter-domain authentication/secure handoff             |
  |          |* Secure routing needed at L3                            |
  |          |* Secure multicast requires origin authentication        |
  |          |* 6LBR (HTTP-CoAP proxy) requires verification of        |
  |          |  forwarded messages and messages leaving or entering the|
  |          |  6LoWPAN/CoAP network.                                  |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+


           Network security needs in different security profiles

                                 Figure 10

6.5.  Application Security

   In the context of 6LoWPAN/CoAP networks, application security refers
   firstly to the configuration of DTLS used to protect the exchanged
   information.  It further refers to the measures required in potential
   translation points (e.g., a (HTTP-CoAP) proxy) where information can
   be collected and the privacy sphere of users in a given security
   domain is endangered.  Application security for the different
   security profiles is as follows.






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             +---------------------------------------------------------+
             |Description                                              |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_0 |  -                                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_1 |  -                                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_2 |* DTLS is used for end-to-end application security       |
  |          |  between management device and things and between things|
  |          |* DTLS ciphersuites configurable to provide              |
  |          |  confidentiality and/or authentication and/or freshness |
  |          |* Key transport and policies for generation of session   |
  |          |  keys are required                                      |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_3 |* Requirements as in SecProf_2 and                       |
  |          |* DTLS is used for end-to-end application security       |
  |          |  between management device and things and between things|
  |          |* Communication between KDC and each thing secured by    |
  |          |  pairwise keys                                          |
  |          |* Group keys for communication in a group distributed    |
  |          |  by KDC                                                 |
  |          |* Privacy protection should be provided in translation   |
  |          |  points                                                 |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+
  |SecProf_4 |* Requirements as in SecProf_3 and                       |
  |          |* TLS or DTLS can be used to send commands from the      |
  |          |  backend to the 6LBR or things in a 6LoWPAN/CoAP network|
  |          |* End-to-end secure connectivity from backend required   |
  |          |* Secure broadcast in a network from backend required    |
  +----------+---------------------------------------------------------+


        Application security methods in different security profiles

                                 Figure 11

   The first two security profiles do not include any security at the
   application layer.  The reason is that, in the first case, security
   is not provided and, in the second case, it seems reasonable to
   provide basic security at L2.  In the third security profile
   (SecProf_2), DTLS becomes the way of protecting messages at
   application layer between things and with the KDC running on a 6LBR.
   A key option refers to the capability of easily configuring DTLS to
   provide a subset of security services (e.g., some applications do not
   require confidentiality) to reduce the impact of security in the
   system operation of resource-constrained things.  In addition to
   basic key management mechanisms running within the KDC, communication
   protocols for key transport or key update are required.  These



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   protocols could be based on DTLS.  The next security suite
   (SecProf_3) requires pairwise keys for communication between things
   within the security domain.  Furthermore, it can involve the usage of
   group keys for group communication.  If secure multicast is
   implemented, it should provide origin authentication.  Finally,
   privacy protection should be taken into account to limit access to
   valuable information -- such as identifiers, type of collected data,
   traffic patterns -- in potential translation points (proxies) or in
   the backend.  The last security suite (SecProf_4) further extends the
   previous set of requirements considering security mechanisms to deal
   with translations between TLS and DTLS or for the provision of secure
   multicast within a 6LoWPAN/CoAP network from the backend.


7.  Next Steps towards a Flexible and Secure Internet of Things

   This Internet Draft included an overview of both operational and
   security requirements of things in the Internet of Things, discussed
   a general threat model and security issues, and introduced a number
   of potential security suites fitting different types of IoT
   deployments.

   We conclude this document by giving our assessment of the current
   status of CoAP security with respect to addressing the IP security
   challenges we identified, so as to facilitate discussion of next
   steps towards workable security design concepts suitable for IP-based
   IoT in the broader community.  Hereby, we focus on the employed
   security protocols and the type of security architecture.

   With current status, we refer to the feasibility of realizing secure
   deployments with existing CoAP protocols and the practicality of
   creating comprehensive security architectures based on those
   protocols:

   1   DTLS has been defined as the basic building block for protecting
       CoAP.  At the time it was first proposed, no DTLS implementation
       for small, constrained devices was available.  In the mean-time,
       TinyDTLS [TinyDTLS] has been developed offering the first open-
       source implementation of the protocol for small devices. However,
       more experience with the protocol is required.  In particular, a
       performance evaluation and comparison should be made with a well-
       defined set of standard node platforms/networks. The results will
       help understand the limitations and the benefits of DTLS as well
       as to give recommended usage scenarios for this security
       protocol.






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   2   (D)TLS was designed for traditional computer networks and, thus,
       some of its features may not be optimal for resource-constrained
       networks.  This includes:

       a   Basic DTLS features that are, in our view, not ideal for
           resource-constrained devices.  For instance, the loss of a
           message in-flight requires the retransmission of all messages
           in-flight.  On the other hand, if all messages in-flight are
           transmitted together in a single UDP packet, more resources
           are required for handling of large buffers.  As pointed out
           in [ID-Hartke] , the number of flights in the DTLS handshake
           should be reduced, so that a faster setup of a secure channel
           can be realized.  This would definitely improve the
           performance of DTLS significantly.

       b   Fragmentation of messages due to smaller MTUs in resource-
           constrained networks is problematic.  This implies that the
           node must have a large buffer to store all the fragments and
           subsequently perform re-ordering and reassembly in order to
           construct the entire DTLS message.  The fragmentation of the
           handshake messages can, e.g., allow for a very simple method
           to carry out a denial of service attack.

       c   The completion of the DTLS handshake is based on the
           successful verification of the Finished message by both
           client and server.  As the Finished message is computed based
           on the hash of all handshake messages in the correct order,
           the node must allocate a large buffer to queue all handshake
           messages.

       d   DTLS is thought to offer end-to-end security; however, end-
           to-end security also has to be considered from the point of
           view of LLN protection, so that end-to-end exchanges can
           still be verified and the LLN protected from, e.g., DoS
           attacks.

   3   Raw public-key in DTLS has been defined as mandatory.  However,
       memory-optimized public-key libraries still require several KB of
       flash and several hundreds of B of RAM.  Although Moore's law
       still applies and an increase of platform resources is expected,
       many IoT scenarios are cost-driven, and in many use cases, the
       same work could be done with symmetric-keys.  Thus, a key
       question is whether the choice for raw public-key is the best
       one.  In addition, using raw public keys rather than certified
       public keys hard codes identities to public keys, thereby
       inhibiting public key updates and potentially complicating
       initial configuration.




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   4   Performance of DTLS from a system perspective should be evaluated
       involving not just the cryptographic constructs and protocols,
       but should also include implementation benchmarks for security
       policies, since these may impact overall system performance and
       network traffic (an example of this would be policies on the
       frequency of key updates, which would necessitate securely
       propagating these to all devices in the network).

   5   Protection of lower protocol layers is a must in networks of any
       size to guarantee resistance against routing attacks such as
       flooding or wormhole attacks.  The wireless medium that is used
       by things to communicate is broadcast in nature and allows
       anybody on the right frequency to overhear and even inject
       packets at will.  Hence, IP-only security solutions may not
       suffice in many IoT scenarios.  At the time of writing the
       document, comprehensive methods are either not in place or have
       not been evaluated yet.  This limits the deployment of large-
       scale systems and makes the secure deployment of large scale
       networks rather infeasible.

   6   The term "bootstrapping" has been discussed in many occasions.
       Although everyone agrees on its importance, finding a good
       solution applicable to most use cases is rather challenging.
       While usage of existing methods for network access might
       partially address bootstrapping in the short-term and facilitate
       integration with legacy back-end systems, we feel that, in the
       medium-term, this may lead to too large of an overhead and
       imposes unnecessary constraints on flexible deployment models.
       The bootstrapping protocol should be reusable and light-weight to
       fit with small devices.  Such a standard bootstrapping protocol
       must allow for commissioning of devices from different
       manufacturers in both centralized and ad-hoc scenarios and
       facilitate transitions of control amongst devices during the
       device's and system's lifecycle.  Examples of the latter include
       scenarios that involve hand-over of control, e.g., from a
       configuration device to an operational management console and
       involving replacement of such a control device.  A key challenge
       for secure bootstrapping of a device in a centralized
       architecture is that it is currently not feasible to commission a
       device when the adjacent devices have not been commissioned yet.
       In view of the authors, a light-weight approach is still required
       that allows for the bootstrapping of symmetric-keys and of
       identities in a certified public-key setting.

   7   Secure resource discovery has not been discussed so far. However,
       this issue is currently gaining relevance.  The IoT, comprising
       sensors and actuators, will provide access to many resources to
       sense and modify the environment.  The usage of DNS presents



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       well-known security issues, while the application of secure DNS
       may not be feasible on small devices.  In general, security
       issues and solutions related to resource discovery are still
       unclear.

   8   A security architecture involves, beyond the basic protocols,
       many different aspects such as key management and the management
       of evolving security responsibilities of entities during the
       lifecycle of a thing.  This document discussed a number of
       security suites and argued that different types of security
       architectures are required.  A flexible IoT security architecture
       should incorporate the properties of a fully centralized
       architecture as well as allow devices to be paired together
       initially without the need for a trusted third party to create
       ad-hoc security domains comprising a number of nodes.  These ad-
       hoc security domains could then be added later to the Internet
       via a single, central node or via a collection of nodes (thus,
       facilitating implementation of a centralized or distributed
       architecture, respectively).  The architecture should also
       facilitate scenarios, where an operational network may be
       partitioned or merged, and where hand-over of control
       functionality of a single device or even of a complete subnetwork
       may occur over time (if only to facilitate smooth device repair/
       replacement without the need for a hard "system reboot" or to
       realize ownership transfer).  This would allow the IoT to
       transparently and effortlessly move from an ad-hoc security
       domain to a centrally-managed single security domain or a
       heterogeneous collection of security domains, and vice-versa.
       However, currently, these features still lack validation in real-
       life, large-scale deployments.

   9   Currently, security solutions are layered, in the sense that each
       layer takes care of its own security needs.  This approach fits
       well with traditional computer networks, but it has some
       limitations when resource-constrained devices are involved and
       these devices communicate with more powerful devices in the back-
       end.  We argue that protocols should be more interconnected
       across layers to ensure efficiency as resource limitations make
       it challenging to secure (and manage) all layers individually. In
       this regard, securing only the application layer leaves the
       network open to attacks, while security focused only at the
       network or link layer might introduce possible inter-application
       security threats.  Hence, the limited resources of things may
       require sharing of keying material and common security mechanisms
       between layers.  It is required that the data format of the
       keying material is standardized to facilitate cross-layer
       interaction.  Additionally, cross-layer concepts should be
       considered for an IoT-driven re-design of Internet security



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       protocols.


8.  Security Considerations

   This document reflects upon the requirements and challenges of the
   security architectural framework for Internet of Things.


9.  IANA Considerations

   This document contains no request to IANA.


10.  Acknowledgements

   We gratefully acknowledge feedback and fruitful discussion with
   Tobias Heer and Robert Moskowitz.


11.  References

11.1.  Informative References

   [RFC6568]Kim, E., Kaspar, D., and JP. Vasseur, "Design and
   Application Spaces for IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area
   Networks (6LoWPANs)", RFC 6568, April 2012.

   [RFC2818]Rescorla, E., "HTTP Over TLS", RFC 2818, May 2000.

   [RFC6345]Duffy, P., Chakrabarti, S., Cragie, R., Ohba, Y., Ed., and
   A. Yegin, "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access
   (PANA) Relay Element", RFC 6345, August 2011.


   [ID-CoAP]Z. Shelby, K. Hartke, C. Bormann, "Constrained Application
   Protocol (CoAP)", draft-ietf-core-coap-18, June 2013.

   [ID-CoAPMulticast]Rahman, A. and E. Dijk, "Group Communication for
   CoAP",draft-ietf-core-groupcomm-12 (work in progress), July 2013.

   [ID-Daniel]Park, S., Kim, K., Haddad, W., Chakrabarti, S., and J.
   Laganier, "IPv6 over Low Power WPAN Security Analysis",Internet Draft
   draft-daniel-6lowpan-security-analysis-05, Mar 2011.

   [ID-HIP]Moskowitz, R., "HIP Diet EXchange (DEX)", draft-moskowitz-
   hip-rg-dex-06 (work in progress), May 2012.




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   [ID-Hartke]Hartke, K. and O. Bergmann, "Datagram Transport Layer
   Security in Constrained Environments", draft-hartke-core-codtls-02
   (work in progress), July 2012.

   [ID-Moskowitz]Moskowitz, R., Heer, T., Jokela, P., and Henderson, T.,
   "Host Identity Protocol Version 2", draft-ietf-hip-rfc5201-bis-13
   (work in progress), Sep 2013.

   [ID-Nikander]Nikander, P. and J. Melen, "A Bound End-to-End
   Tunnel(BEET) mode for ESP", draft-nikander-esp-beet-mode-09, Aug
   2008.

   [ID-OFlynn]O'Flynn, C., Sarikaya, B., Ohba, Y., Cao, Z., and R.
   Cragie, "Security Bootstrapping of Resource-Constrained Devices",
   draft-oflynn-core-bootstrapping-03 (work in progress), Nov 2010.

   [ID-Tsao]Tsao, T., Alexander, R., Dohler, M., Daza, V., and A.
   Lozano, "A Security Framework for Routing over Low Power and Lossy
   Networks", draft-ietf-roll-security-framework-07, Jan 2012.

   [ID-Williams]Williams, M. and J. Barrett, "Mobile DTLS", draft-
   barrett-mobile-dtls-00, Mar 2009.

   [ID-proHTTPCoAP]Castellani, A., Loreto, S., Rahman, A., Fossati, T.,
   and E. Dijk, "Best practices for HTTP-CoAP mapping implementation",
   draft-castellani-core-http-mapping-07(work in progress), Feb 2013.


   [RFC3261]Rosenberg, J., Schulzrinne, H., Camarillo, G., Johnston, A.,
   Peterson, J., Sparks, R., Handley, M., and E. Schooler, "SIP: Session
   Initiation Protocol", RFC 3261, June 2002.

   [RFC3748]Aboba, B., Blunk, L., Vollbrecht, J., Carlson, J., and H.
   Levkowetz, Ed., "Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP)", RFC 3748,
   June 2004.

   [RFC3756]Nikander, P., Ed., Kempf, J., and E. Nordmark, "IPv6
   Neighbor Discovery (ND) Trust Models and Threats", RFC 3756, May
   2004.

   [RFC3833]Atkins, D. and R. Austein, "Threat Analysis of the Domain
   Name System (DNS)", RFC 3833, August 2004.

   [RFC4016]Parthasarathy, M., "Protocol for Carrying Authentication and
   Network Access (PANA) Threat Analysis and Security Requirements",
   RFC 4016, March 2005.

   [RFC5246]Dierks, T. and E. Rescorla, "The Transport Layer Security



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   (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2", RFC 5246, August 2008.

   [RFC4251]Ylonen, T. and C. Lonvick, Ed., "The Secure Shell (SSH)
   Protocol Architecture", RFC 4251, January 2006.

   [RFC4306]Kaufman, C., Ed., "Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2) Protocol",
   RFC 4306, December 2005.

   [RFC4555]Eronen, P., "IKEv2 Mobility and Multihoming Protocol
   (MOBIKE)", RFC 4555, June 2006.

   [RFC4621]Kivinen, T. and H. Tschofenig, "Design of the IKEv2 Mobility
   and Multihoming (MOBIKE) Protocol", RFC 4621, August 2006.

   [RFC4738]Ignjatic, D., Dondeti, L., Audet, F., and P. Lin, "MIKEY-
   RSA-R: An Additional Mode of Key Distribution in Multimedia Internet
   KEYing (MIKEY)", RFC 4738, November 2006.

   [RFC4919]Kushalnagar, N., Montenegro, G., and C. Schumacher, "IPv6
   over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs): Overview,
   Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals", RFC 4919, August 2007.

   [RFC4944]Montenegro, G., Kushalnagar, N., Hui, J., and D. Culler,
   "Transmission of IPv6 Packets over IEEE 802.15.4 Networks", RFC 4944,
   September 2007.

   [RFC5191]Forsberg, D., Ohba, Y., Ed., Patil, B., Tschofenig, H., and
   A. Yegin, "Protocol for Carrying Authentication for Network Access
   (PANA)", RFC 5191, May 2008.

   [RFC5201]Moskowitz, R., Nikander, P., Jokela, P., Ed., and T.
   Henderson, "Host Identity Protocol", RFC 5201, April 2008.

   [RFC5206]Nikander, P., Henderson, T., Ed., Vogt, C., and J. Arkko,
   "End-Host Mobility and Multihoming with the Host Identity Protocol",
   RFC 5206, April 2008.

   [RFC5238]Phelan, T., "Datagram Transport Layer Security (DTLS) over
   the Datagram Congestion Control Protocol (DCCP)", RFC 5238, May 2008.

   [RFC5246]Dierks, T. and E. Rescorla, "The Transport Layer Security
   (TLS) Protocol Version 1.2", RFC 5246, August 2008.

   [RFC5713]Moustafa, H., Tschofenig, H., and S. De Cnodder, "Security
   Threats and Security Requirements for the Access Node Control
   Protocol (ANCP)", RFC 5713, January 2010.

   [RFC5903]Fu, D. and J. Solinas, "Elliptic Curve Groups modulo a Prime



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   (ECP Groups) for IKE and IKEv2", RFC 5903, June 2010.



   [AUTO-ID]"AUTO-ID LABS", Web http://www.autoidlabs.org/, Sept 2010.

   [BACNET]"BACnet", Web http://www.bacnet.org/, Feb 2011.

   [DALI]"DALI", Web http://www.dalibydesign.us/dali.html, Feb 2011.

   [JOURNAL-Perrig]Perrig, A., Szewczyk, R., Wen, V., Culler, D., and J.
   Tygar, "SPINS: Security protocols for Sensor Networks",Journal
   Wireless Networks, Sept 2002.

   [NIST]Dworkin, M., "NIST Specification Publication 800-38B", 2005.

   [PROC-Chan]Chan, H., Perrig, A., and D. Song, "Random Key
   Predistribution Schemes for Sensor Networks", Proceedings IEEE
   Symposium on Security and Privacy, 2003.

   [PROC-Gupta]Gupta, V., Wurm, M., Zhu, Y., Millard, M., Fung, S.,
   Gura, N., Eberle, H., and S. Shantz, "Sizzle: A Standards-based End-
   to-End Security Architecture for the Embedded Internet", Proceedings
   Pervasive Computing and Communications (PerCom), 2005.

   [PROC-Smetters-02]Balfanz, D., Smetters, D., Steward, P., and H. Chi
   Wong,"Talking To Strangers: Authentication in Ad-Hoc Wireless
   Networks", Paper NDSS, 2002.

   [PROC-Smetters-04]Balfanz, D., Durfee, G., Grinter, R., Smetters, D.,
   and P. Steward, "Network-in-a-Box: How to Set Up a Secure Wireless
   Network in Under a Minute", Paper USENIX, 2004.

   [PROC-Stajano-99]Stajano, F. and R. Anderson, "Resurrecting Duckling
   - Security Issues for Adhoc Wireless Networks", 7th International
   Workshop Proceedings, Nov 1999.

   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
   Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119, March 1997.

   [THESIS-Langheinrich]Langheinrich, M., "Personal Privacy in
   Ubiquitous Computing", PhD Thesis ETH Zurich, 2005.

   [TinyDTLS "TinyDTLS", Web http://tinydtls.sourceforge.net/, Feb 2012.

   [WG-6LoWPAN]"IETF 6LoWPAN Working Group", Web
   http://tools.ietf.org/wg/6lowpan/, Feb 2011.




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   [WG-CoRE]"IETF Constrained RESTful Environment (CoRE) Working Group",
   Web https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/core/charter/, Feb 2011.

   [WG-MSEC]"MSEC Working Group", Web
   http://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/msec/.

   [ZB]"ZigBee Alliance", Web http://www.zigbee.org/, Feb 2011.












































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Authors' Addresses

   Oscar Garcia-Morchon
   Philips Research
   High Tech Campus
   Eindhoven,   5656 AA
   The Netherlands

   Email: oscar.garcia@philips.com


   Sandeep S. Kumar
   Philips Research
   High Tech Campus
   Eindhoven,   5656 AA
   The Netherlands

   Email: sandeep.kumar@philips.com


   Sye Loong Keoh
   University of Glasgow Singapore
   Republic PolyTechnic, 9 Woodlands Ave 9
   Singapore 838964
   SG

   Email: SyeLoong.Keoh@glasgow.ac.uk


   Rene Hummen
   RWTH Aachen University
   Templergraben 55
   Aachen,   52056
   Germany

   Email: rene.hummen@cs.rwth-aachen.de


   Rene Struik
   Struik Security Consultancy
   Toronto,
   Canada

   Email: rstruik.ext@gmail.com







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