Global Access to the Internet for All J. Saldana, Ed.
Internet-Draft University of Zaragoza
Intended status: Informational A. Arcia-Moret
Expires: September 19, 2016 University of Cambridge
B. Braem
iMinds
E. Pietrosemoli
The Abdus Salam ICTP
A. Sathiaseelan
University of Cambridge
M. Zennaro
The Abdus Salam ICTP
March 18, 2016
Alternative Network Deployments: Taxonomy, characterization,
technologies and architectures
draft-irtf-gaia-alternative-network-deployments-04
Abstract
This document presents a taxonomy of a set of "Alternative Network
Deployments" emerged in the last decade with the aim of bringing
Internet connectivity to people. They employ architectures and
topologies different from those of mainstream networks, and rely on
alternative business models.
The document also surveys the technologies deployed in these
networks, and their differing architectural characteristics,
including a set of definitions and shared properties.
The classification considers models such as Community Networks,
Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISPs), networks owned by
individuals but leased out to network operators who use them as a
low-cost medium to reach the underserved population, and networks
that provide connectivity by sharing wireless resources of the users.
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1. Mainstream networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2. Alternative Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2. Terms used in this document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Scenarios where Alternative Networks are deployed . . . . . . 6
3.1. Urban vs. Rural Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.2. Topology patterns followed by Alternative Networks . . . 9
4. Classification criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.1. Commercial model / promoter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2. Goals and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.3. Administrative model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4. Technologies employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.5. Typical scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5. Classification of Alternative Networks . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.1. Community Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2. Wireless Internet Service Providers, WISPs . . . . . . . 13
5.3. Shared infrastructure model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
5.4. Crowdshared approaches, led by the users and third party
stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.5. Testbeds for research purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6. Technologies employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.1. Wired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.2. Wireless . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
6.2.1. Media Access Control (MAC) Protocols for Wireless
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Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2.1.1. 802.11 (Wi-Fi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2.1.2. GSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2.1.3. Dynamic Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
7. Upper layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1. Layer 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1.1. IP addressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1.2. Routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.1.2.1. Traditional routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.1.2.2. Mesh routing protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.2. Transport layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.2.1. Traffic Management when sharing network resources . . 22
7.3. Services provided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3.1. Intranet services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3.2. Access to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
7.3.2.1. Web browsing proxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7.3.2.2. Use of VPNs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
9. Contributing Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
10. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
11. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
12. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1. Introduction
One of the aims of the Global Access to the Internet for All (GAIA)
IRTF research group is "to document and share deployment experiences
and research results to the wider community through scholarly
publications, white papers, Informational and Experimental RFCs,
etc." [GAIA]. In line with this objective, this document proposes a
classification of "Alternative Network Deployments". This term
includes a set of network access models that have emerged in the last
decade with the aim of providing Internet connection, following
topological, architectural and business models that differ from the
so-called "mainstream" ones, where a company deploys the
infrastructure connecting the users, who pay a subscription fee to be
connected and make use of it.
Several initiatives throughout the world have built these large scale
networks, using predominantly wireless technologies (including long
distance) due to the reduced cost of using unlicensed spectrum.
Wired technologies such as fiber are also used in some of these
networks.
The classification considers several types of alternate deployments:
Community Networks are self-organized networks wholly owned by the
community; networks acting as Wireless Internet Service Providers
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(WISPs); networks owned by individuals but leased out to network
operators who use such networks as a low cost medium to reach the
underserved population; and finally there are networks that provide
connectivity by sharing wireless resources of the users.
The emergence of these networks has been motivated by a variety of
factors such as the lack of wired and cellular infrastructures in
rural/remote areas [Pietrosemoli]. In some cases, alternative
networks may provide more localized communication services as well as
Internet backhaul support through peering agreements with mainstream
network operators. In other cases, they are built as a complement or
an alternative to commercial Internet access provided by mainstream
network operators.
The present document is intended to provide a broad overview of
initiatives, technologies and approaches employed in these networks,
including some real examples. References describing each kind of
network are also provided.
1.1. Mainstream networks
In this document we will use the term "mainstream networks" to denote
those networks sharing these characteristics:
o Regarding scale, they are usually large networks spanning entire
regions.
o Top-down control of the network and centralized approach.
o They require a substantial investment in infrastructure.
o Users in mainstream networks do not participate in the network
design, deployment, operation and maintenance.
1.2. Alternative Networks
The term "Alternative Network" proposed in this document refers to
the networks that do not share the characteristics of "mainstream
network deployments".
2. Terms used in this document
This document follows a multidisciplinary approach, considering the
multidisciplinary nature of the Internet and the problems being
addressed. Therefore, some concepts used in fields and disciplines
different from networking are being used. This subsection summarizes
these terms, and the meaning being attributed to them.
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o "Global north" and "global south": Although there is no consensus
on the terms to be used when talking about the different
development level of countries, we will employ the term "global
south" to refer to nations with a relatively lower standard of
living. This distinction is normally intended to reflect basic
economic country conditions. In common practice, Japan in Asia,
Canada and the United States in northern America, Australia and
New Zealand in Oceania, and Europe are considered "developed"
regions or areas [UN], so we will employ the term "global north"
when talking about them.
o The "Digital Divide". The following dimensions are considered to
be meaningful when measuring the digital development state of a
country: infrastructures (availability and affordability),
Information and Communications Technology (ICT) sector (human
capital and technological industry), digital literacy, legal and
regulatory framework and, content and services. A lack of digital
development in one or more of these dimensions is what has been
referred as the "Digital Divide" [Norris].
o Rural zone. The document will follow the definition of "rural "
proposed by G. P. Wibberley in 1972 [Wibberley]: "The word
describes those parts of a country which show unmistakable signs
of being dominated by extensive uses of land, either at the
present time or in the immediate past. It is important to
emphasise that these extensive uses might have had a domination
over an area which has now gone because this allows us to look at
settlements which to the eye still appear to be rural but which,
in practice, are merely an extension of the city resulting from
the development of the commuter train and the private motor car"
[Clot].
o Urban zone. The definition of "urban" does vary between
countries, as shown in [UNStats]. For example, in the United
States they are defined as "Agglomerations of 2 500 or more
inhabitants, generally having population densities of 1 000
persons per square mile or more." In China the term "city" is
proper of those designated by the State Council. In Liberia they
are "Localities of 2 000 or more inhabitants." In France they are
"communes containing an agglomeration of more than 2 000
inhabitants living in contiguous houses or with not more than 200
metres between houses." In Guam, they are "agglomerations of 2
500 or more inhabitants, generally having population densities of
1 000 persons per square mile or more, referred to as "urban
clusters"".
o Demand: In economics, it describes a consumer's desire and
willingness to pay a price for a specific good or service.
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o Provision is the act of making an asset available for sale. In
this document we will mainly use it as the act of making a network
service available to the inhabitants of a zone.
o Underserved area. Area in which the market permanently fails to
provide the information and communications services demanded by
the population.
o "Free Networks" (also called "Network Commons") [FNF]. A
definition of Free Network is proposed by the Free Network
Foundation (see https://thefnf.org) as the one that "equitably
grants the following freedoms to all:
* Freedom 0 - The freedom to communicate for any purpose, without
discrimination, interference, or interception.
* Freedom 1 - The freedom to grow, improve, communicate across,
and connect to the whole network.
* Freedom 2- The freedom to study, use, remix, and share any
network communication mechanisms, in their most reusable
forms."
o The principles of Free, Open and Neutral Networks have also been
summarized (see https://guifi.net/en/FONNC) this way:
* "You have the freedom to use the network for any purpose as
long as you do not harm the operation of the network itself,
the rights of other users, or the principles of neutrality that
allow contents and services to flow without deliberate
interference.
* You have the right to understand the network, to know its
components, and to spread knowledge of its mechanisms and
principles.
* You have the right to offer services and content to the network
on your own terms.
* You have the right to join the network, and the responsibility
to extend this set of rights to anyone according to these same
terms."
3. Scenarios where Alternative Networks are deployed
Different studies have reported that as much as 60% of the people on
the planet do not have Internet connectivity [Sprague],
[InternetStats]. In addition, those unconnected are unevenly
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distributed: only 31 percent of the population in "global south"
countries had access in 2014, against 80 percent in "global north"
countries [WorldBank2016]. This is one of the reasons behind the
inclusion of the objective of providing "significantly increase
access to ICT and strive to provide universal and affordable access
to internet in LDCs by 2020," as one of the targets in the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [SDG], considered as a part of
"Goal 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and
sustainable industrialization and foster innovation."
For the purpose of this document, a distinction between "global
north" and "global south" zones is made, highlighting the factors
related to ICT (Information and Communication Technologies), which
can be quantified in terms of:
o The availability of both national and international bandwidth, as
well as equipment.
o The difficulty to pay for the services and the devices required to
access the ICTs.
o The instability and or lack of power supply.
o The scarcity of qualified staff.
o The existence of a policy and regulatory framework that hinders
the development of these models in favor of state monopolies or
incumbents.
In this context, the World Summit of the Information Society aimed at
achieving "a people-centred, inclusive and development-oriented
Information Society, where everyone can create, access, utilize and
share information and knowledge. Therefore, enabling individuals,
communities and people to achieve their full potential in promoting
their sustainable development and improving their quality of life".
It also called upon "governments, private sector, civil society and
international organizations" to actively engage to work towards the
bridging of the digital divide [WSIS].
Some Alternative Networks have been deployed in underserved areas,
where citizens may be compelled to take a more active part in the
design and implementation of ICT solutions. However, Alternative
Networks are also present in some "global north" countries, being
built as an alternative to commercial ones managed by mainstream
network operators.
The consolidation of a number of mature Alternative Networks (e.g.
Community Networks) sets a precedent for civil society members to
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become more active in the search for alternatives to provide
themselves with affordable access. Furthermore, Alternative Networks
could contribute to other dimensions of the digital development like
increased human capital and the creation of content and services
targeting the locality of each network.
3.1. Urban vs. Rural Areas
The differences presented in the previous section are not only
present between countries, but within them too. This is especially
the case for rural inhabitants, who represent approximately 55% of
the world's population [IFAD2011], 78% of them in "global south"
countries [ITU2011]. According to the World Bank, adoption gaps
"between rural and urban populations are falling for mobile phones
but increasing for the internet" [WorldBank2016].
Although it is impossible to generalize among them, there exist some
common features in rural areas that have prevented incumbent
operators for providing access and that, at the same time, challenge
the deployment of alternative infrastructures [Brewer], [Nungu],
[Simo_c].
These challenges include:
o Low per capita income, as the local economy is mainly based on
subsistence agriculture, farming and fishing.
o Scarcity or absence of basic infrastructure, such as electricity,
water and access roads.
o Low population density and distance (spatial or affective) between
population clusters.
o Underdeveloped social services, such as healthcare and education.
o Lack of adequately educated and trained technicians, and high
potential for those trained to migrate due to lack of
opportunities and low salaries in rural areas, or to start their
own companies [McMahon].
o High cost of Internet access [Mathee].
o Harsh environments leading to failure in electronic communication
devices [Johnson].
However, the proliferation of urban Community Networks, where
scarcity of spectrum, scale, and heterogeneity of devices pose
certain challenges to their stability and the services they aim to
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provide, has fuelled the creation of low-cost, low-consumption, low-
complexity off-the-shelf wireless devices. These devices can
simplify the deployment and maintenance of alternative
infrastructures in rural areas.
3.2. Topology patterns followed by Alternative Networks
Alternative Networks, considered self-managed and self-sustained,
follow different topology patterns [Vega]. Generally, these networks
grow spontaneously and organically, that is, the network grows
without specific planning and deployment strategy and the routing
core of the network tends to fit a power law distribution. Moreover,
these networks are composed of a high number of heterogeneous devices
with the common objective of freely connecting and increasing the
network coverage. Although these characteristics increase the
entropy (e.g., by increasing the number of routing protocols), they
have resulted in an inexpensive solution to effectively increase the
network size. One example corresponds to Guifi.net [Vega] with an
exponential growth rate in the number of operating nodes during the
last decade.
Regularly, rural areas in these networks are connected through long-
distance links (the so-called community mesh approach) which in turn
conveys the Internet connection to relevant organizations or
institutions. In contrast, in urban areas, users tend to share and
require mobile access. Since these areas are also likely to be
covered by commercial ISPs, the provision of wireless access by
Virtual Operators like [Fon] may constitute a way to extend the user
capacity to the network. Other proposals like Virtual Public
Networks [Sathiaseelan_a] can also extend the service.
4. Classification criteria
The classification of Alternative Network Deployments, presented in
this document, is based on the following criteria:
4.1. Commercial model / promoter
The entity (or entities) or individuals promoting an Alternative
Network can be:
o A community of users.
o A public stakeholder.
o A private company.
o Supporters of a crowdshared approach.
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o A community that already owns some infrastructure shares it with
an operator, which uses it for backhauling purposes.
o A research or academic entity.
4.2. Goals and motivation
Alternative Networks can also be classified according to the
underlying motivation for them, e.g., addressing deployment and usage
hurdles:
o Reducing initial capital expenditures (for the network and the end
user, or both).
o Providing additional sources of capital (beyond the traditional
carrier-based financing).
o Reducing on-going operational costs (such as backhaul or network
administration)
o Leveraging expertise.
o Reducing hurdles to adoption (digital literacy; literacy in
general; relevance, etc.)
o Extending coverage to underserved areas (users and communities).
o Network neutrality guarantees.
4.3. Administrative model
o Centralized, where a single authority (e.g. a company, a public
stakeholder) plans and manages the network.
o Non-centralized, i.e. the network is managed following a
distributed approach, in which a whole community may participate.
The network may also grow according to the fact of new users
joining it, but not following a plan.
4.4. Technologies employed
o Standard Wi-Fi. Many Alternative Networks are based on the
standard IEEE 802.11 [IEEE.802-11-2012] using the Distributed
Coordination Function.
o Wi-Fi modified for long distances (WiLD), either with CSMA/CA or
with an alternative TDMA MAC [Simo_b].
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o 802.16-compliant (WiMax) [IEEE.802-16.2008] systems over non-
licensed bands.
o Dynamic Spectrum Solutions (e.g. based on the use of white
spaces), a set of television frequencies that can be utilized by
secondary users in locations where they are unused, e.g., IEEE
802.11af [IEEE.802-11AF.2013] or 802.22 [IEEE.802-22.2011].
o Satellite solutions can also be employed to give coverage to wide
areas.
o Low-cost optical fiber systems are used to connect households in
some villages.
4.5. Typical scenarios
The scenarios where Alternative Networks are usually deployed can be
classified as:
o Urban / Rural areas.
o "Global north" / "Global south" countries.
5. Classification of Alternative Networks
This section classifies Alternative Networks according to the
criteria explained previously. Each of them has different incentive
structures, maybe common technological challenges, but most
importantly interesting usage challenges which feed into the
incentives as well as the technological challenges.
At the beginning of each subsection, a table is presented including a
classification of each network according to the criteria listed in
the "Classification criteria" subsection.
In some cases, real examples of Alternative Networks are cited.
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5.1. Community Networks
+--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Commercial | community |
| model/promoter | |
+--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Goals and | reducing hurdles; to serve underserved |
| motivation | areas; network neutrality |
+--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Administration | non-centralized |
+--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Technologies | Wi-Fi [IEEE.802-11-2012], optical fiber |
+--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
| Typical scenarios | urban and rural |
+--------------------+----------------------------------------------+
Table 1: Community Networks' characteristics summary
Community Networks are large-scale, non-centralized, self-managed
networks sharing these characteristics:
o They start and grow organically, they are open to participation
from everyone, sharing an open peering agreement. Community
members directly contribute active (not just passive) network
infrastructure. The network grows as new hosts and links are
added.
o Knowledge about building and maintaining the network and ownership
of the network itself is non-centralized and open. There is a
shared platform (e.g. a web site) where a minimum coordination is
performed. This way, community members with the right permissions
have an obvious and direct form of organizational control over the
overall operation of the network (e.g. IP addresses, routing,
etc.) in their community (not just their own participation in the
network).
o The network can serve as a backhaul for providing a whole range of
services and applications, from completely free to even commercial
services.
Hardware and software used in Community Networks can be very diverse,
even inside one network. A Community Network can have both wired and
wireless links. Multiple routing protocols or network topology
management systems may coexist in the network.
These networks grow organically, since they are formed by the
aggregation of nodes belonging to different users. A minimal
governance infrastructure is required in order to coordinate IP
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addressing, routing, etc. An example of this kind of Community
Network is described in [Braem]. These networks follow a
participatory model, which has been shown effective in connecting
geographically dispersed people, thus enhancing and extending digital
Internet rights.
The fact of the users adding new infrastructure (i.e. extensibility)
can be used to formulate another definition: A Community Network is a
network in which any participant in the system may add link segments
to the network in such a way that the new segments can support
multiple nodes and adopt the same overall characteristics as those of
the joined network, including the capacity to further extend the
network. Once these link segments are joined to the network, there
is no longer a meaningful distinction between the previous and the
new extent of the network.
In Community Networks, profit can only be made by offering services
and not simply by supplying the infrastructure, because the
infrastructure is neutral, free, and open (mainstream Internet
Service Providers base their business on the control of the
infrastructure). In Community Networks, everybody keeps the
ownership of what he/she has contributed.
The majority of Community Networks comply with the definition of Free
Network, included in Section 2.
5.2. Wireless Internet Service Providers, WISPs
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Commercial | company |
| model/promoter | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Goals and | to serve underserved areas; to reduce capital |
| motivation | expenditures in Internet access; to provide |
| | additional sources of capital |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Administration | centralized |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Technologies | wireless e.g. [IEEE.802-11-2012], |
| | [IEEE.802-16.2008], unlicensed frequencies |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Typical | rural |
| scenarios | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
Table 2: WISPs' characteristics summary
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WISPs are commercially-operated wireless Internet networks that
provide Internet and/or Voice Over Internet (VoIP) services. They
are most common in areas not covered by mainstream telcos or ISPs.
WISPs mostly use wireless point-to-multipoint links using unlicensed
spectrum but often must resort to licensed frequencies. Use of
licensed frequencies is common in regions where unlicensed spectrum
is either perceived to be crowded, or too unreliable to offer
commercial services, or where unlicensed spectrum faces regulatory
barriers impeding its use.
Most WISPs are operated by local companies responding to a perceived
market gap. There is a small but growing number of WISPs, such as
AirJaldi [Airjaldi] in India that have expanded from local service
into multiple locations.
Since 2006, the deployment of cloud-managed WISPs has been possible
with hardware from companies such as Meraki and later OpenMesh and
others. Until recently, however, most of these services have been
aimed at industrialized markets. Everylayer [Everylayer], launched
in 2014, is the first cloud-managed WISP service aimed at emerging
markets.
5.3. Shared infrastructure model
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Commercial | shared: companies and users |
| model/promoter | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Goals and | to eliminate a capital expenditures barrier (to |
| motivation | operators); lower the operating expenses |
| | (supported by the community); to extend coverage |
| | to underserved areas |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Administration | Non-centralized |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Technologies | wireless in non-licensed bands, [WiLD] and/or |
| | low-cost fiber, mobile femtocells |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Typical | rural areas, and more particularly rural areas |
| scenarios | in "global south" regions |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
Table 3: Shared infrastructure characteristics summary
In conventional networks, the operator usually owns the
telecommunications infrastructure required for the service, or
sometimes rents infrastructure to/from other companies. The problem
arises in large areas with low population density, in which neither
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the operator nor other companies have deployed infrastructure and
such deployments are not likely to happen due to the low potential
return on investment.
When users already own deployed infrastructure, either individually
or as a community, sharing that infrastructure with an operator can
benefit both parties and is a solution that has been deployed in some
areas. For the operator, this provides a significant reduction in
the initial investment needed to provide services in small rural
localities because capital expenditure is only associated with the
access network. Renting capacity in the users' network for
backhauling only requires an increment in the operating expenditure.
This approach also benefits the users in two ways: they obtain
improved access to telecommunications services that would not be
accessible otherwise, and they can derive some income from the
operator that helps to offset the network's operating costs,
particularly for network maintenance.
One clear example of the potential of the "shared infrastructure
model" nowadays is the deployment of 3G services in rural areas in
which there is a broadband rural community network. Since the
inception of femtocells (small, low-power cellular base stations),
there are complete technical solutions for low-cost 3G coverage using
the Internet as a backhaul. If a user or community of users has an
IP network connected to the Internet with some excess capacity,
placing a femtocell in the user premises benefits both the user and
the operator, as the user obtains better coverage and the operator
does not have to support the cost of the backhaul infrastructure.
Although this paradigm was conceived for improved indoor coverage,
the solution is feasible for 3G coverage in underserved rural areas
with low population density (i.e. villages), where the number of
simultaneous users and the servicing area are small enough to use
low-cost femtocells. Also, the amount of traffic produced by these
cells can be easily transported by most community broadband rural
networks.
Some real examples can be referenced in the TUCAN3G project, (see
http://www.ict-tucan3g.eu/) which deployed demonstrator networks in
two regions in the Amazon forest in Peru. In these networks
[Simo_a], the operator and several rural communities cooperated to
provide services through rural networks built up with WiLD links
[WiLD]. In these cases, the networks belong to the public health
authorities and were deployed with funds come from international
cooperation for telemedicine purposes. Publications that justify the
feasibility of this approach can also be found on that website.
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5.4. Crowdshared approaches, led by the users and third party
stakeholders
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Commercial | community, public stakeholders, private |
| model/promoter | companies, supporters of a crowdshared approach |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Goals and | sharing connectivity and resources |
| motivation | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Administration | Non-centralized |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Technologies | Wi-Fi [IEEE.802-11-2012] |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
| Typical | urban and rural |
| scenarios | |
+----------------+--------------------------------------------------+
Table 4: Crowdshared approaches characteristics summary
These networks can be defined as a set of nodes whose owners share
common interests (e.g. sharing connectivity; resources; peripherals)
regardless of their physical location. They conform to the following
approach: the home router creates two wireless networks: one of them
is normally used by the owner, and the other one is public. A small
fraction of the bandwidth is allocated to the public network, to be
employed by any user of the service in the immediate area. Some
examples are described in [PAWS] and [Sathiaseelan_c]. Other
examples are found in the networks created and managed by City
Councils (e.g., [Heer]). The "openwireless movement"
(https://openwireless.org/) also promotes the sharing of private
wireless networks.
In the same way, some companies [Fon] promote the use of Wi-Fi
routers with dual access: a Wi-Fi network for the user, and a shared
one. A user community is created, and people can join the network in
different ways: they can buy a router, so they share their connection
and in turn they get access to all the routers associated with the
community. Some users can even get some revenue every time another
user connects to their Wi-Fi access point. Users that are not part
of the community can buy passes in order to use the network. Some
mainstream telecommunications operators collaborate with these
communities, by including the functionality required to create the
two access networks in their routers. Some of these efforts are
surveyed in [Shi]
The elements involved in a crowd-shared network are summarized below:
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o Interest: a parameter capable of providing a measure (cost) of the
attractiveness of a node in a specific location, at a specific
instance in time.
o Resources: A physical or virtual element of a global system. For
instance, bandwidth; energy; data; devices.
o The owner: End users who sign up for the service and share their
network capacity. As a counterpart, they can access another
owners' home network capacity for free. The owner can be an end
user or an entity (e.g. operator; virtual operator; municipality)
that is to be made responsible for any actions concerning his/her
device.
o The user: a legal entity or an individual using or requesting a
publicly available electronic communications' service for private
or business purposes, without necessarily having subscribed to
such service.
o The Virtual Network Operator (VNO): An entity that acts in some
aspects as a network coordinator. It may provide services such as
initial authentication or registration, and eventually, trust
relationship storage. A VNO is not an ISP given that it does not
provide Internet access (e.g. infrastructure; naming). A VNO is
not an Application Service Provider (ASP) either since it does not
provide user services. Virtual Operators may also be stakeholders
with socio-environmental objectives. They can be local
governments, grass-roots user communities, charities, or even
content operators, smart grid operators, etc. They are the ones
who actually run the service.
o Network operators, who have a financial incentive to lease out
unused capacity [Sathiaseelan_b] at lower cost to the VNOs.
VNOs pay the sharers and the network operators, thus creating an
incentive structure for all the actors: the end users get money for
sharing their network, the network operators are paid by the VNOs,
who in turn accomplish their socio-environmental role.
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5.5. Testbeds for research purposes
+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| Commercial | research / academic entity |
| model/promoter | |
+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| Goals and | research |
| motivation | |
+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| Administration | centralized initially, but it may end up in a |
| | non-centralized model. |
+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| Technologies | wired and wireless |
+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
| Typical scenarios | urban and rural |
+-------------------+-----------------------------------------------+
Table 5: Testbeds' characteristics summary
In some cases, the initiative to start the network is not from the
community, but from a research entity (e.g. a university), with the
aim of using it for research purposes [Samanta], [Bernardi].
The administration of these networks may start being centralized in
most cases (administered by the academic entity) and may end up in a
non-centralized model in which other local stakeholders assume part
of the network administration [Rey].
6. Technologies employed
6.1. Wired
In many ("global north" or "global south") countries it may happen
that national service providers decline to provide connectivity to
tiny and isolated villages. So in some cases the villagers have
created their own optical fiber networks. This is the case in
Lowenstedt in Germany [Lowenstedt], or some parts of Guifi.net
[Cerda-Alabern].
6.2. Wireless
The vast majority of Alternative Network Deployments are based on
different wireless technologies [WNDW]. Below we summarize the
options and trends when using these features in Alternative Networks.
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6.2.1. Media Access Control (MAC) Protocols for Wireless Links
Different protocols for Media Access Control, which also include
physical layer (PHY) recommendations, are widely used in Alternative
Network Deployments. Wireless standards ensure interoperability and
usability to those who design, deploy and manage wireless networks.
The standards used in the vast majority of Alternative Networks come
from the IEEE Standard Association's IEEE 802 Working Group.
Standards developed by other international entities can also be used,
as e.g. the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
6.2.1.1. 802.11 (Wi-Fi)
The standard we are most interested in is 802.11 a/b/g/n/ac, as it
defines the protocol for Wireless LAN. It is also known as "Wi-Fi".
The original release (a/b) was issued in 1999 and allowed for rates
up to 54 Mbit/s. The latest release (802.11ac) approved in 2013
reaches up to 866.7 Mbit/s. In 2012, the IEEE issued the 802.11-2012
Standard that consolidates all the previous amendments. The document
is freely downloadable from IEEE Standards [IEEE].
The MAC protocol in 802.11 is called CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance) and was designed for short
distances; the transmitter expects the reception of an acknowledgment
for each transmitted unicast packet; if a certain waiting time is
exceeded, the packet is retransmitted. This behavior makes necessary
the adaptation of several MAC parameters when 802.11 is used in long
links [Simo_b]. Even with this adaptation, distance has a
significant negative impact on performance. For this reason, many
vendors implement alternative medium access techniques that are
offered alongside the standard CSMA/CA in their outdoor 802.11
products. These alternative proprietary MAC protocols usually employ
some type of TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access). Low cost
equipment using these techniques can offer high throughput at
distances above 100 kilometers.
6.2.1.2. GSM
GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), from ETSI, has also
been used in Alternative Networks as a Layer 2 option, as explained
in [Mexican], [Village], [Heimerl].
6.2.1.3. Dynamic Spectrum
Some Alternative Networks make use of TV White Spaces - a set of UHF
and VHF television frequencies that can be utilized by secondary
users in locations where they are unused by licensed primary users
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such as television broadcasters. Equipment that makes use of TV
White Spaces is required to detect the presence of existing unused TV
channels by means of a spectrum database and/or spectrum sensing in
order to ensure that no harmful interference is caused to primary
users. In order to smartly allocate interference-free channels to
the devices, cognitive radios are used which are able to modify their
frequency, power and modulation techniques to meet the strict
operating conditions required for secondary users.
The use of the term "White Spaces" is often used to describe "TV
White Spaces" as the VHF and UHF television frequencies were the
first to be exploited on a secondary use basis. There are two
dominant standards for TV white space communication: (i) the 802.11af
standard [IEEE.802-11AF.2013] - an adaptation of the 802.11 standard
for TV white space bands and (ii) the IEEE 802.22 standard
[IEEE.802-22.2011] for long-range rural communication.
6.2.1.3.1. 802.11af
802.11af [IEEE.802-11AF.2013] is a modified version of the 802.11
standard operating in TV White Space bands using Cognitive Radios to
avoid interference with primary users. The standard is often
referred to as White-Fi or "Super Wi-Fi" and was approved in February
2014. 802.11af contains much of the advances of all the 802.11
standards including recent advances in 802.11ac such as up to four
bonded channels, four spatial streams and very high rate 256-QAM
modulation but with improved in-building penetration and outdoor
coverage. The maximum data rate achievable is 426.7 Mbps for
countries with 6/7 MHz channels and 568.9 Mbps for countries with 8
MHz channels. Coverage is typically limited to 1 km although longer
range at lower throughput and using high gain antennas will be
possible.
Devices are designated as enabling stations (Access Points) or
dependent stations (clients). Enabling stations are authorized to
control the operation of a dependent station and securely access a
geolocation database. Once the enabling station has received a list
of available white space channels it can announce a chosen channel to
the dependent stations for them to communicate with the enabling
station. 802.11af also makes use of a registered location server - a
local database that organizes the geographic location and operating
parameters of all enabling stations.
6.2.1.3.2. 802.22
802.22 [IEEE.802-22.2011] is a standard developed specifically for
long range rural communications in TV white space frequencies and
first approved in July 2011. The standard is similar to the 802.16
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(WiMax) [IEEE.802-16.2008] standard with an added cognitive radio
ability. The maximum throughput of 802.22 is 22.6 Mbps for a single
8 MHz channel using 64-QAM modulation. The achievable range using
the default MAC scheme is 30 km, however 100 km is possible with
special scheduling techniques. The MAC of 802.22 is specifically
customized for long distances - for example, slots in a frame
destined for more distant Consumer Premises Equipment (CPEs) are sent
before slots destined for nearby CPEs.
Base stations are required to have a Global Positioning System (GPS)
and a connection to the Internet in order to query a geolocation
spectrum database. Once the base station receives the allowed TV
channels, it communicates a preferred operating white space TV
channel with the CPE devices. The standard also includes a co-
existence mechanism that uses beacons to make other 802.22 base
stations aware of the presence of a base station that is not part of
the same network.
7. Upper layers
7.1. Layer 3
7.1.1. IP addressing
Most known Alternative Networks started in or around the year 2000.
IPv6 was fully specified by then, but almost all Alternative Networks
still use IPv4. A survey [Avonts] indicated that IPv6 rollout
presents a challenge to Community Networks.
Most Community Networks use private IPv4 address ranges, as defined
by [RFC1918]. The motivation for this was the lower cost and the
simplified IP allocation because of the large available address
ranges.
7.1.2. Routing protocols
As stated in previous sections, Alternative Networks are composed of
possibly different layer 2 devices, resulting in a mesh of nodes.
Connection between different nodes is not guaranteed and the link
stability can vary strongly over time. To tackle this, some
Alternative Networks use mesh network routing protocols while other
networks use more traditional routing protocols. Some networks
operate multiple routing protocols in parallel. For example, they
may use a mesh protocol inside different islands and rely on
traditional routing protocols to connect these islands.
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7.1.2.1. Traditional routing protocols
The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), as defined by [RFC4271] is used by
a number of Community Networks, because of its well-studied behavior
and scalability.
For similar reasons, smaller networks opt to run the Open Shortest
Path First (OSPF) protocol, as defined by [RFC2328].
7.1.2.2. Mesh routing protocols
A large number of Alternative Networks use the Optimized Link State
Routing Protocol (OLSR) as defined in [RFC3626]. The pro-active link
state routing protocol is a good match with Alternative Networks
because it has good performance in mesh networks where nodes have
multiple interfaces.
The Better Approach To Mobile Adhoc Networking (BATMAN) [Abolhasan]
protocol was developed by members of the Freifunk community. The
protocol handles all routing at layer 2, creating one bridged
network.
Parallel to BGP, some networks also run the BatMan-eXperimental
(BMX6) protocol [Neumann]. This is an advanced version of the BATMAN
protocol which is based on IPv6 and tries to exploit the social
structure of Alternative Networks.
7.2. Transport layer
7.2.1. Traffic Management when sharing network resources
When network resources are shared (as e.g. in the networks explained
in Section 5.4), special care has to be taken with the management of
the traffic at upper layers. From a crowdshared perspective, and
considering just regular TCP connections during the critical sharing
time, the Access Point offering the service is likely to be the
bottleneck of the connection. This is the main concern of sharers,
having several implications. There should be an adequate Active
Queue Management (AQM) mechanism that implements a Lower-than-best-
effort (LBE) [RFC6297] policy for the user and protects the sharer.
Achieving LBE behavior requires the appropriate tuning of the well
known mechanisms such as Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN)
[RFC3168], or Random Early Detection (RED) [RFC2309], or other more
recent AQM mechanisms such as Controlled Delay (CoDel) and
[I-D.ietf-aqm-codel] PIE (Proportional Integral controller Enhanced)
[I-D.ietf-aqm-pie] that aid low latency.
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7.3. Services provided
This section provides an overview of the services between hosts
inside the network. They can be divided into Intranet services,
connecting hosts between them, and Internet services, connecting to
nodes outside the network.
7.3.1. Intranet services
Intranet services can include, but are not limited to:
o VoIP (e.g. with SIP).
o Remote desktop (e.g. using my home computer and my Internet
connection when I am away).
o FTP file sharing (e.g. distribution of software and media).
o P2P file sharing.
o Public video cameras.
o DNS.
o Online games servers.
o Jabber instant messaging.
o IRC chat.
o Weather stations.
o NTP.
o Network monitoring.
o Videoconferencing / streaming.
o Radio streaming.
o Message / Bulletin board.
7.3.2. Access to the Internet
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7.3.2.1. Web browsing proxies
A number of federated proxies may provide web browsing service for
the users. Other services (file sharing, VoIP, etc.) are not usually
allowed in many Alternative Networks due to bandwidth limitations.
7.3.2.2. Use of VPNs
Some "micro-ISPs" may use the network as a backhaul for providing
Internet access, setting up VPNs from the client to a machine with
Internet access.
8. Acknowledgements
This work has been partially funded by the CONFINE European
Commission Project (FP7 - 288535). Arjuna Sathiaseelan and Andres
Arcia Moret were funded by the EU H2020 RIFE project (Grant Agreement
no: 644663). Jose Saldana was funded by the EU H2020 Wi-5 project
(Grant Agreement no: 644262).
The editor and the authors of this document wish to thank the
following individuals who have participated in the drafting, review,
and discussion of this memo:
Paul M. Aoki, Roger Baig, Jaume Barcelo, Steven G. Huter, Rohan
Mahy, Rute Sofia, Dirk Trossen.
A special thanks to the GAIA Working Group chairs Mat Ford and Arjuna
Sathiaseelan for their support and guidance.
9. Contributing Authors
Leandro Navarro
U. Politecnica Catalunya
Jordi Girona, 1-3, D6
Barcelona 08034
Spain
Phone: +34 934016807
Email: leandro@ac.upc.edu
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Carlos Rey-Moreno
University of the Western Cape
Robert Sobukwe road
Bellville 7535
South Africa
Phone: 0027219592562
Email: crey-moreno@uwc.ac.za
Ioannis Komnios
Democritus University of Thrace
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Kimmeria University Campus
Xanthi 67100
Greece
Phone: +306945406585
Email: ikomnios@ee.duth.gr
Steve Song
Village Telco Limited
Halifax
Canada
Phone:
Email: stevesong@nsrc.org
David Lloyd Johnson
Meraka, CSIR
15 Lower Hope St
Rosebank 7700
South Africa
Phone: +27 (0)21 658 2740
Email: djohnson@csir.co.za
Javier Simo-Reigadas
Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieria de Telecomunicacion
Campus de Fuenlabrada
Universidad Rey Juan Carlos
Madrid
Spain
Phone: 91 488 8428 / 7500
Email: javier.simo@urjc.es
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10. IANA Considerations
This memo includes no request to IANA.
11. Security Considerations
No security issues have been identified for this document.
12. Informative References
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[Cerda-Alabern]
Cerda-Alabern, L., "On the topology characterization of
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Nichols, K., Jacobson, V., McGregor, A., and J. Iyengar,
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[I-D.ietf-aqm-pie]
Pan, R., Natarajan, P., and F. Baker, "PIE: A Lightweight
Control Scheme To Address the Bufferbloat Problem", draft-
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[IEEE.802-11-2012]
"Information technology--Telecommunications and
information exchange between systems Local and
metropolitan area networks--Specific requirements Part 11:
Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHY) Specifications", IEEE Standard 802.11-2012,
2012, <http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/
download/802.11-2012.pdf>.
[IEEE.802-11AF.2013]
"Information technology - Telecommunications and
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metropolitan area networks - Specific requirements - Part
11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical
Layer (PHY) specifications - Amendment 5: Television White
Spaces (TVWS) Operation", IEEE Standard 802.11af, Oct
2009, <http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/
download/802.11af-2013.pdf>.
[IEEE.802-16.2008]
"Information technology - Telecommunications and
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metropolitan area networks (MANs) - IEEE Standard for Air
Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems",
IEEE Standard 802.16, Jun 2008,
<http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/
download/802.16-2012.pdf>.
[IEEE.802-22.2011]
"Information technology - Telecommunications and
information exchange between systems - Local and
metropolitan area networks - Specific requirements - Part
22: Cognitive Wireless RAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and
Physical Layer (PHY) specifications: Policies and
procedures for operation in the TV Bands", IEEE Standard
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[InternetStats]
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and E. Lear, "Address Allocation for Private Internets",
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[RFC2309] Braden, B., Clark, D., Crowcroft, J., Davie, B., Deering,
S., Estrin, D., Floyd, S., Jacobson, V., Minshall, G.,
Partridge, C., Peterson, L., Ramakrishnan, K., Shenker,
S., Wroclawski, J., and L. Zhang, "Recommendations on
Queue Management and Congestion Avoidance in the
Internet", RFC 2309, DOI 10.17487/RFC2309, April 1998,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2309>.
[RFC2328] Moy, J., "OSPF Version 2", STD 54, RFC 2328,
DOI 10.17487/RFC2328, April 1998,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2328>.
[RFC3168] Ramakrishnan, K., Floyd, S., and D. Black, "The Addition
of Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) to IP",
RFC 3168, DOI 10.17487/RFC3168, September 2001,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3168>.
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[RFC3626] Clausen, T., Ed. and P. Jacquet, Ed., "Optimized Link
State Routing Protocol (OLSR)", RFC 3626,
DOI 10.17487/RFC3626, October 2003,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3626>.
[RFC4271] Rekhter, Y., Ed., Li, T., Ed., and S. Hares, Ed., "A
Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4)", RFC 4271,
DOI 10.17487/RFC4271, January 2006,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc4271>.
[RFC6297] Welzl, M. and D. Ros, "A Survey of Lower-than-Best-Effort
Transport Protocols", RFC 6297, DOI 10.17487/RFC6297, June
2011, <http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6297>.
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Authors' Addresses
Jose Saldana (editor)
University of Zaragoza
Dpt. IEC Ada Byron Building
Zaragoza 50018
Spain
Phone: +34 976 762 698
Email: jsaldana@unizar.es
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Andres Arcia-Moret
University of Cambridge
15 JJ Thomson Avenue
Cambridge FE04
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 (0) 1223 763610
Email: andres.arcia@cl.cam.ac.uk
Bart Braem
iMinds
Gaston Crommenlaan 8 (bus 102)
Gent 9050
Belgium
Phone: +32 3 265 38 64
Email: bart.braem@iminds.be
Ermanno Pietrosemoli
The Abdus Salam ICTP
Via Beirut 7
Trieste 34151
Italy
Phone: +39 040 2240 471
Email: ermanno@ictp.it
Arjuna Sathiaseelan
University of Cambridge
15 JJ Thomson Avenue
Cambridge CB30FD
United Kingdom
Phone: +44 (0)1223 763781
Email: arjuna.sathiaseelan@cl.cam.ac.uk
Marco Zennaro
The Abdus Salam ICTP
Strada Costiera 11
Trieste 34100
Italy
Phone: +39 040 2240 406
Email: mzennaro@ictp.it
Saldana, et al. Expires September 19, 2016 [Page 34]