Human Rights Protocol Considerations Research Group N. ten Oever
Internet-Draft University of Amsterdam
Intended status: Informational A. Andersdotter
Expires: September 20, 2018 ARTICLE 19
March 19, 2018
On the Politics of Standards
draft-tenoever-hrpc-political-04
Abstract
This document argues that the politics of standards need to be taken
into account in the standards development process. We come to this
conclusion by mapping different perspectives on the relation between
standards and politics in the Internet community and by providing
illustrations of the political aspects of standard development.
Status of This Memo
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Vocabulary Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Literature and Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1. Technology is value neutral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2. Some protocols are political some times . . . . . . . . . 4
3.3. All protocols are political sometimes . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.4. The network has its own logic and values . . . . . . . . 4
3.5. Protocols are inherently political . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4. Examples and approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5. Competition and collaboration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1. Standards development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.2. Standards development in the IETF . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. More legacy, more politics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7. Layers of politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8. How voluntary are open standards? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
9. The need for a positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
10. The way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
12. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
13. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
14. Research Group Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
15. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
15.1. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
15.2. URIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. Introduction
"Science and technology lie at the heart of social asymmetry.
Thus technology both creates systems which close off other
options and generate novel, unpredictable and indeed
previously unthinkable, option. The game of technology is
never finished, and its ramifications are endless.
- Michel Callon
The design of the Internet through protocols and standards is a
technical issue with great political and economic impacts [RFC0613].
The early Internet community already realized that it needed to make
decisions on political issues such as Intellectual Property,
Internationalization [BramanI], diversity, access [RFC0101] privacy
and security [RFC0049], and the military [RFC0164] [RFC0316],
governmental [RFC0144] [RFC0286] [RFC0313] [RFC0542] [RFC0549] and
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non-governmental [RFC0196] uses, which has been clearly pointed out
by Braman [BramanII].
Recently there has been an increased discussion on the relation
between Internet protocols and human rights [RFC8280] which spurred
the discussion on the political nature of standards. The network
infrastructure is on the one hand designed, described, developed,
standardized and implemented by the Internet community, but the
Internet community and Internet users are also shaped by the
affordances of the technology. Companies, citizens, governments,
standards developing bodies, public opinion and public interest
groups all play a part in these discussions. In this document we aim
to outline different views on the relation between standards and
politics and seek to answer the question whether standards are
political, and if so, how.
2. Vocabulary Used
Politics (from Greek: Politika: Politika, definition "affairs of the
commons") is the process of making decisions applying to all
members of a diverse group with conflicting interests. More
narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of
governance or organized control over a community. Furthermore,
politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and
resources within a given community as well as the
interrelationship(s) between communities. (adapted from )
3. Literature and Positions
While discussing the impact of protocols on human rights different
positions can be differentiated. Without judging them on their
internal of external consistency they are represented here.
3.1. Technology is value neutral
This position starts from the premise that the technical and
political are differentiated fields and that technology is 'value
free'. This is also put more explicitly by Carey: "electronics is
neither the arrival of apocalypse nor the dispensation of grace.
Technology is technology; it is a means for communication and
transportation over space, and nothing more." [Carey] In this view
technology only become political when it is actually being used by
humans. So the technology itself is not political, the use of the
technology is. This view sees technology as instrument;
"technologies are 'tools' standing ready to serve the purposes of
their users. Technology is deemed 'neutral,' without valuative
content of its own.'" [Feenberg]. Feenberg continues: "technology is
not inherently good or bad, and can be used to whatever political or
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social ends desired by the person or institution in control.
Technology is a 'rational entity' and universally applicable. One
may make exceptions on moral grounds, but one must also understand
that the "price for the achievement of environmental, ethical, or
religious goals...is reduced efficiency." [Feenberg]
3.2. Some protocols are political some times
This stance is a pragmatic approach to the problem. It states that
some protocols under certain conditions can themselves have a
political dimension. This is different from the claim that a
protocol might sometimes be used in a political way; that view is
consistent with the idea of the technology being neutral (for the
human action using the technology is where the politics lies).
Instead, this position requires that each protocol and use be
evaluated for its political dimension, in order to understand the
extent to which it is political.
3.3. All protocols are political sometimes
While not an absolutist standpoint it recognizes that all design
decisions are subject to the law of unintended consequences. The
system consisting of the Internet and its users is vastly too complex
to be predictable; it is chaotic in nature; its emergent properties
cannot be predicted.
3.4. The network has its own logic and values
While humans create technologies, this does not mean that they are
forever under human control. A technology, once created, has its own
logic that is independent of the human actors that either create or
use the technology.
Consider, for instance, the way that the very existence of the
automobile imposes physical forms on the world different from those
that come from the electric tram or the horse-cart. The logic of the
automobile means speed and the rapid covering of distance, which
encourages suburban development and a tendency toward conurbation.
But even if that did not happen, widespread automobile use requires
paved roads, and parking lots and structures. These are pressures
that come from the automotive technology itself, and would not arise
without that technology.
Certain kinds of technology shape the world in this sense. As Martin
Heidegger says, "The hydroelectric plant is not built into the Rhine
River as was the old wooden bridge that joined bank with bank for
hundreds of years. Rather the river is dammed up into the power
plant. What the river is now, namely, a water power supplier,
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derives from out of the essence of the power station." [Heidegger]
(p 16) The dam in the river changes the world in a way the bridge
does not, because the dam alters the nature of the river.
In much same way, then, networking technology once created makes its
own demands. One of the most important conditions for protocol
success is that the protocol is incremental deployability [RFC5218].
This means that the network already deployed constrains what can be
deployed into it. Moreover, one interpretation of [RFC7258] is that
pervasive monitoring is an "attack" precisely because of the
network's need not to leak traces of online exchanges. A different
network with a different design might not have been subject to this
kind of attack.
3.5. Protocols are inherently political
On the other side of the spectrum there are the ones who insist that
technology is non-neutral. This is for instance made explicit by
Postman where he writes: 'the uses made of technology are largely
determined by the structure of the technology itself' [Postman]. He
states that the medium itself 'contains an ideological bias'. He
continues to argue that technology is non-neutral:
(1) because of the symbolic forms in which information is encoded,
different media have different intellectual and emotional biases; (2)
because of the accessibility and speed of their information,
different media have different political biases; (3) because of their
physical form, different media have different sensory biases; (4)
because of the conditions in which we attend to them, different media
have different social biases; (5) because of their technical and
economic structure, different media have different content biases.
[Postman]
More recent scholars of Internet infrastructure and governance have
also pointed out that Internet processes and standards have become
part and parcel of political processes and public policies: one only
has to look at the IANA transition or global innovation policy for
concrete examples [DeNardis]. Similarly one can look at the Raven
process in which the IETF after a long discussion refused to
standardize wiretapping (which resulted in [RFC2804]. That was an
instance where the IETF took a position that was largely political,
although driven by a technical argument. It was similar to the
process that led to [RFC6973], in which something that occurred in
the political space (Snowden disclosures) engendered the IETF to act.
This is summarized in [Abbate] who says: "protocols are politics by
other means". This emphasizes the interests that are at play in the
process of designing standards. This position holds further that
protocols can never be understood without their contextual
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embeddedness: protocols do not exist solely by themselves but always
are to be understood in a more complex context - the stack, hardware,
or nation-state interests and their impact on civil rights. Finally,
this view is that that protocols are political because they affect or
sometimes effect the socio-technical ordering of reality. The latter
observation leads Winner to conclude that the reality of
technological progress has too often been a scenario where the
innovation has dictated change for society. Those who had the power
to introduce a new technology also had the power to create a consumer
class to use the technology, 'with new practices, relationships, and
identities supplanting the old, --and those who had the wherewithal
to implement new technologies often molded society to match the needs
of emerging technologies and organizations.' [Winner].
4. Examples and approaches
5. Competition and collaboration
Standards exist for nearly everything: processes, technologies,
safety, hiring, elections, and training. Standards provide blue-
prints for how to accomplish a particular task in a similar way to
others trying to accomplish the same thing, while reducing overhead
and inefficiencies. Standards enhance competition by allowing
different entities to work from a commonly accepted baseline. And
they exist in many forms: there can be informal standards, that are
just agreed upon normal ways of interacting within a specific
community (i.e. the process through which greetings to a new
acquaintance are expressed through a bow, a handshake or similar).
There can be formal standards, that are normally codified in writing.
And there can be de facto standards: standards that arise in market
situations where one entity is particularly dominant, and downstream
competitors are therefore tied to the dominant entity's technological
solutions [Ahlborn]. Under EU anti-trust law, de facto standards
have been found to be able to restrict competition for downstream
services for PC software products [CJEU2007], as well as downstream
services dependent on health information [CJEU2004].
The World Trade Organisation (WTO) recognises a difference between
standards and technical regulations, where standards are voluntary
formal codes to which products or services may conform while
technical regulations are mandatory requirements the fulfillment of
which is required for a product to be accessible on one of the WTO
country markets. The WTO rules have implications for how nation
states, at least those that have signed on to the WTO agreements, may
impose specific technical requirements on companies.
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But there are many standardisation groups that were originally
launched by nation states or groups of nation states. ISO, BIS,
CNIS, NIST, ABNT and ETSI are examples of institutions that are,
wholly or partially, sponsored by public money in order to ensure
smooth development of formal standards. Even if under WTO rules
these organisations cannot create the equivalent of a technical
regulation, they have important normative functions in their
respective countries.
5.1. Standards development
The development of formal standards development faces a number of
economic and organisational challenges. The cost and difficulty of
organising many entities around a mutual goal, as well as the cost of
research and development leading up to a mutually beneficial
technological platform. In addition, one faces the problem of
deciding what the mutual goal is.
These problems may be described as inter-organisational costs. Even
after a goal is decided upon, coordination of multiple entities
requires time and money. One needs communication platforms,
processes and a commitment to mutual investment in a higher good.
They are not simple tasks, and the more different communities are
affected by a particular standardisation process, the more difficult
the organisational challenges become.
5.2. Standards development in the IETF
The standards enabling interoperating networks, what we think of
today as the Internet, were created as open, formal and voluntary
standards. A platform for internet standardisation, the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF), was created in 1992 to enable the
continuation of such standardisation work.
The IETF has sought to make the standards process transparent (by
ensuring everyone can access standards, mailing-lists and meetings),
predictable (by having clear procedures and reviews) and of high
quality (by having draft documents reviewed by members from its own
epistemic community). This is all aimed at increasing the
accountability of the process and the quality of the standard.
The IETF implements what has been referred to as an "informal ex ante
disclosure policy" for patents [Contreras], which includes the
possibility for participants to disclose the existence of a patent
relevant for the standard, royalty-terms which would apply to the
implementors of that standard should it enter into effect, as well as
other licensing terms that may be interesting for implementors to
know. The community ethos in the IETF seems to lead to 100% royalty-
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free disclosures of prior patents which is a record number, even
among other comparable standard organisations [Contreras].
In spite of a strong community ethos and transparent procedures, the
IETF is not immune to externalities. Sponsorship to the IETF is
varied, but is also of the nature that ongoing projects that are in
the specific interest of one or some group of corporations may be
given more funding than other projects (see
[draft-finance-thoughts]). The IETF has faced three periods of
decreased commitment from participants in funding its meetings in the
past ten years, leading, naturally, to self-scrutiny, see for
instance [IAOC69], [IAOC77], [IAOC99].
6. More legacy, more politics?
Roman engineers complained about inadequate legacy standards they
needed to comply with, which hampered them in their engineering
excellence. In that sense not much has changed in the last 2100
years. When starting from a tabula rasa, one does not need to take
other systems, layers or standards into account. The need for
interoperability, and backward compatability makes engineering work
harder. And once a standard is designed, it does not automatically
means it will be broadly adopted at as fast pace. Examples of this
are IPv6, DNSSEC, DKIM, etc. The need for interoperability means
that a new protocol needs to take into account a much more diverse
environment than early protocols, and also be amendable to different
needs: protocols needs to relate and negotiate in a busy agora, as do
the protocol developers. This means that some might get priority,
whereas others get dropped.
7. Layers of politics
There is a competition between layers, and even contestation about
what the borders of different layers are. This leads to competition
between layers and different solutions for similar problems on
different layers, which in its turn leads to further ossification,
which leads to more contestation.
8. How voluntary are open standards?
Coordinating transnational stakeholders in a process of negotiation
and agreement through the development of common rules is a form of
global governance [Nadvi]. Standards are among the mechanisms by
which this governance is achieved. Conformance to certain standards
is often a basic condition of participation in international trade
and communication, so there are strong economic and political
incentives to conform, even in the absence of legal requirements
[Russell]. [RogersEden] argue:
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"As unequal participants compete to define standards, technological
compromises emerge, which add complexity to standards. For instance,
when working group participants propose competing solutions, it may
be easier for them to agree on a standard that combines all the
proposals rather than choosing any single proposal. This shifts the
responsibility for selecting a solution onto those who implement the
standard, which can lead to complex implementations that may not be
interoperable. On its face this appears to be a failure of the
standardization process, but this outcome may benefit certain
participants-- for example, by allowing an implementer with large
market share to establish a de facto standard within the scope of the
documented standard."
9. The need for a positioning
It is indisputable that the Internet plays an increasingly important
role in the lives of individuals. The community that produces
standards for the Internet therefore also has an impact on society,
which it itself has recognised in a number of previously adopted
documents [RFC1958].
The IETF cannot ordain what standards are to be used on the networks,
and it specifically does not determine the laws of regions or
countries where networks are being used, but it does set open
standards for interoperability on the Internet, and has done so since
the inception of the Internet. Because a standard is the blue-print
for how to accomplish a particular task in a similar way to others,
the standards adopted have a normative effect. The standardisation
work at the IETF will have implications on what is perceived as
technologically possible and useful where networking technologies are
being deployed, and its standards output reflect was is considered by
the technical community as feasible and good practice.
This calls for providing a methodology in the IETF community to
evaluate which routes forward should indeed be feasible, what
constitutes the "good" in "good practice" and what trade-offs between
different feasible features of technologies are useful and should
therefore be made possible. Such an analysis should take societal
implication into account.
The risk of not doing this is threefold: (1) the IETF might make
decisions which have a political impact that was not intended by the
community, (2) other bodies or entities might make the decisions for
the IETF because the IETF does not have an explicit stance, (3) other
bodies that do take these issues into account might increase in
importance to the detriment of the influence of the IETF.
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This does not mean the IETF does not have a position on particular
political issues. The policies for open and diverse participation
[RFC7704], the anti-harassment policy [RFC7776], as well as the
Guidelines for Privacy Considerations [RFC6973] are testament of
this. But these are all examples of positions about the IETF's work
processes or product. What is absent is a way for IETF participants
to evaluate their role with respect to the wider implications of that
IETF work.
10. The way forward
There are instruments that can help the IETF develop an approach to
address the politics of standards. Part of this can be found in
[RFC8280] as well as the United National Guiding Principles for
Business and Human Rights [UNGP]. But there is not a one-size-fits-
all solution. The IETF is a particular organization, with a
particular mandate, and even if a policy is in place, its success
depends on the implementation of the policy by the community.
Since 'de facto standardization is reliant on market forces'
[Hanseth] we need to live with the fact standards bodies have a
political nature [Webster]. This does not need to be problematic as
long as there are sufficient accountability and transparency
mechanisms in place. The importance of these mechanisms increases
with the importance of the standards and their implementations. The
complexity of the work inscribes a requirement of competence in the
work in the IETF, which forms an inherent barrier for end-user
involvement. Even though this might not be intentional, it is a
result of the interplay between the characteristics of the epistemic
community in the IETF and the nature of the standard setting process.
Instead of splitting hairs about whether 'standards are political'
[Winner] [Woolgar] we argue that we need to look at the politics of
individual standards and invite document authors and reviewers to
take these dynamics into account.
11. Security Considerations
As this draft concerns a research document, there are no security
considerations as described in [RFC3552], which does not mean that
not addressing the issues brought up in this draft will not impact
the security of end-users or operators.
12. IANA Considerations
This document has no actions for IANA.
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13. Acknowledgements
Thanks to Andrew Sullivan, Brian Carpenter, Mark Perkins and all
contributors and reviewers on the hrpc mailinglist.
14. Research Group Information
The discussion list for the IRTF Human Rights Protocol Considerations
working group is located at the e-mail address hrpc@ietf.org [1].
Information on the group and information on how to subscribe to the
list is at: https://www.irtf.org/mailman/listinfo/hrpc [2]
Archives of the list can be found at: https://www.irtf.org/mail-
archive/web/hrpc/current/index.html [3]
15. References
15.1. Informative References
[Abbate] Abbate, J., "Inventing the Internet", MIT Press , 2000,
<https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/inventing-internet>.
[Ahlborn] Ahlborn, C., Denicolo, V., Geradin, D., and A. Padilla,
"Implications of the Proposed Framework and Antitrust
Rules for Dynamically Competitive Industries", DG Comp's
Discussion Paper on Article 82, DG COMP, European
Commission , 2006,
<http://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=T-201/04>.
[BramanI] Braman, S., "Internationalization of the Internet by
design: The first decade", Global Media and Communication,
Vol 8, Issue 1, pp. 27 - 45 , 2012, <http://dx.doi.org.pro
xy.uba.uva.nl:2048/10.1177%2F1742766511434731>.
[BramanII]
Braman, S., "The Framing Years: Policy Fundamentals in the
Internet Design Process, 1969-1979", The Information
Society Vol. 27, Issue 5, 2011 , 2010, <http://dx.doi.org.
proxy.uba.uva.nl:2048/10.1080/01972243.2011.607027>.
[Carey] Carey, J., "Communication As Culture", p. 139 , 1992.
[CJEU2004]
Court of Justice of the European Union, .,
"ECLI:EU:C:2004:257, C-418/01 IMS Health", Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press , 2004,
<http://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=C-418/01>.
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[CJEU2007]
Court of Justice of the European Union, .,
"ECLI:EU:T:2007:289, T-201/04 Microsoft Corp.", Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press , 2007,
<http://curia.europa.eu/juris/liste.jsf?num=T-201/04>.
[Contreras]
Contreras, J., "Technical Standards and Ex Ante
Disclosure: Results and Analysis of an Empirical Study",
Jurimetrics: The Journal of Law, Science & Technology,
vol. 53, p. 163-211 , 2013.
[DeNardis]
Denardis, L., "The Internet Design Tension between
Surveillance and Security", IEEE Annals of the History of
Computing (volume 37-2) , 2015, <http://is.gd/7GAnFy>.
[draft-finance-thoughts]
Arkko, J., "Thoughts on IETF Finance Arrangements", 2017,
<https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/
draft-arkko-ietf-finance-thoughts>.
[Feenberg]
Feenberg, A., "Critical Theory of Technology", p.5-6 ,
1991.
[Hanseth] Hanseth, O. and E. Monteiro, "Insribing Behaviour in
Information Infrastructure Standards", Accounting,
Management and Infomation Technology 7 (14) p.183-211 ,
1997.
[Heidegger]
Heidegger, M., "The Question Concerning Technology and
Other Essays", Garland: New York, 1977 , 1977,
<http://ssbothwell.com/documents/ebooksclub.org__The_Quest
ion_Concerning_Technology_and_Other_Essays.pdf>.
[IAOC69] IAOC, ., "IAOC Report Chicago", 2007,
<https://iaoc.ietf.org/documents/
IAOC-Report-Chicago-69.pdf>.
[IAOC77] IAOC, ., "IAOC Report Anaheim", 2010,
<https://iaoc.ietf.org/documents/
IAOC-Report-Anaheim-77.pdf>.
[IAOC99] IAOC, ., "IAOC Report Prague", 2017,
<https://iaoc.ietf.org/documents/
IAOCReportinAdvanceofIETF99.pdf>.
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[Nadvi] Nadvi, K. and F. Waeltring, "Making sense of global
standards", In: H. Schmitz (Ed.), Local enterprises in the
global economy (pp. 53-94). Cheltenham, UK: Edward
Elgar. , 2004.
[Postman] Postman, N., "Technopoly: the Surrender of Culture to
Technology", Vintage: New York. pp. 3-20. , 1992.
[RFC0049] Meyer, E., "Conversations with S. Crocker (UCLA)", RFC 49,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0049, April 1970,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc49>.
[RFC0101] Watson, R., "Notes on the Network Working Group meeting,
Urbana, Illinois, February 17, 1971", RFC 101,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0101, February 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc101>.
[RFC0144] Shoshani, A., "Data sharing on computer networks",
RFC 144, DOI 10.17487/RFC0144, April 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc144>.
[RFC0164] Heafner, J., "Minutes of Network Working Group meeting,
5/16 through 5/19/71", RFC 164, DOI 10.17487/RFC0164, May
1971, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc164>.
[RFC0196] Watson, R., "Mail Box Protocol", RFC 196,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0196, July 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc196>.
[RFC0286] Forman, E., "Network Library Information System", RFC 286,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0286, December 1971,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc286>.
[RFC0313] O'Sullivan, T., "Computer based instruction", RFC 313,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0313, March 1972,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc313>.
[RFC0316] McKay, D. and A. Mullery, "ARPA Network Data Management
Working Group", RFC 316, DOI 10.17487/RFC0316, February
1972, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc316>.
[RFC0542] Neigus, N., "File Transfer Protocol", RFC 542,
DOI 10.17487/RFC0542, August 1973,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc542>.
[RFC0549] Michener, J., "Minutes of Network Graphics Group meeting,
15-17 July 1973", RFC 549, DOI 10.17487/RFC0549, July
1973, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc549>.
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[RFC0613] McKenzie, A., "Network connectivity: A response to RFC
603", RFC 613, DOI 10.17487/RFC0613, January 1974,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc613>.
[RFC1958] Carpenter, B., Ed., "Architectural Principles of the
Internet", RFC 1958, DOI 10.17487/RFC1958, June 1996,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc1958>.
[RFC2804] IAB and IESG, "IETF Policy on Wiretapping", RFC 2804,
DOI 10.17487/RFC2804, May 2000,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2804>.
[RFC3552] Rescorla, E. and B. Korver, "Guidelines for Writing RFC
Text on Security Considerations", BCP 72, RFC 3552,
DOI 10.17487/RFC3552, July 2003,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc3552>.
[RFC5218] Thaler, D. and B. Aboba, "What Makes for a Successful
Protocol?", RFC 5218, DOI 10.17487/RFC5218, July 2008,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc5218>.
[RFC6973] Cooper, A., Tschofenig, H., Aboba, B., Peterson, J.,
Morris, J., Hansen, M., and R. Smith, "Privacy
Considerations for Internet Protocols", RFC 6973,
DOI 10.17487/RFC6973, July 2013,
<https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6973>.
[RFC7258] Farrell, S. and H. Tschofenig, "Pervasive Monitoring Is an
Attack", BCP 188, RFC 7258, DOI 10.17487/RFC7258, May
2014, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7258>.
[RFC7704] Crocker, D. and N. Clark, "An IETF with Much Diversity and
Professional Conduct", RFC 7704, DOI 10.17487/RFC7704,
November 2015, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7704>.
[RFC7776] Resnick, P. and A. Farrel, "IETF Anti-Harassment
Procedures", BCP 25, RFC 7776, DOI 10.17487/RFC7776, March
2016, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7776>.
[RFC8280] ten Oever, N. and C. Cath, "Research into Human Rights
Protocol Considerations", RFC 8280, DOI 10.17487/RFC8280,
October 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8280>.
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[RogersEden]
Rogers, M. and G. Eden, "The Snowden Disclosures,
Technical Standards, and the Making of Surveillance
Infrastructures", International Journal of Communication
11(2017), 802-823 , 2017,
<http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/view/5525/1941>.
[Russell] Russell, A., "Open standards and the digital age: History,
ideology, and networks", Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press , 2014.
[UNGP] Ruggie, J. and United Nations, "United Nations Guiding
Principles for Business and Human Rights", 2011,
<http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/
GuidingPrinciplesBusinessHR_EN.pdf>.
[Webster] Webster, J., "Networks of Collaboration or Conflict? The
Development of EDI", The social shaping of inter-
organizational IT systems and data interchange, eds: I.
McLougling & D. Mason, European Commission PICT/COST A4 ,
1995.
[Winner] Winner, L., "Upon openig the black box and finding it
empty: Social constructivism and the philosophy of
technology", Science, Technology, and Human Values 18 (3)
p. 362-378 , 1993.
[Woolgar] Woolgar, S., "Configuring the user: the case of usability
trials", A sociology of monsters. Essays on power,
technology and dominatior, ed: J. Law, Routeledge p.
57-102. , 1991.
15.2. URIs
[1] mailto:hrpc@ietf.org
[2] https://www.irtf.org/mailman/listinfo/hrpc
[3] https://www.irtf.org/mail-archive/web/hrpc/current/index.html
Authors' Addresses
Niels ten Oever
University of Amsterdam
EMail: mail@nielstenoever.net
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Amelia Andersdotter
ARTICLE 19
EMail: amelia@article19.org
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