Security Threats to Simplified Multicast Forwarding (SMF)
draft-ietf-manet-smf-sec-threats-06
The information below is for an old version of the document that is already published as an RFC.
| Document | Type | RFC Internet-Draft (manet WG) | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Authors | Jiazi Yi , Thomas H. Clausen , Ulrich Herberg | ||
| Last updated | 2018-12-20 (Latest revision 2016-08-26) | ||
| Replaces | draft-yi-manet-smf-sec-threats | ||
| Stream | Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) | ||
| Formats | plain text htmlized pdfized bibtex | ||
| Reviews |
RTGDIR Early review
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Has Issues
GENART Last Call review
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||
| Stream | WG state | Submitted to IESG for Publication | |
| Document shepherd | Christopher Dearlove | ||
| Shepherd write-up | Show Last changed 2016-04-14 | ||
| IESG | IESG state | RFC 7985 (Informational) | |
| Consensus boilerplate | Yes | ||
| Telechat date | (None) | ||
| Responsible AD | Alvaro Retana | ||
| Send notices to | "Justin Dean" <bebemaster@gmail.com>, aretana@cisco.com | ||
| IANA | IANA review state | Version Changed - Review Needed | |
| IANA action state | No IANA Actions |
draft-ietf-manet-smf-sec-threats-06
Mobile Ad hoc Networking (MANET) J. Yi
Internet-Draft T. Clausen
Updates: 7186 (if approved) Ecole Polytechnique
Intended status: Informational U. Herberg
Expires: February 28, 2017 August 27, 2016
Security Threats for Simplified Multicast Forwarding (SMF)
draft-ietf-manet-smf-sec-threats-06
Abstract
This document analyzes security threats of the Simplified Multicast
Forwarding (SMF) mechanism, including the vulnerabilities of
duplicate packet detection and relay set selection mechanisms. This
document is not intended to propose solutions to the threats
described.
This document also updates RFC7186 regarding the threats to relay set
selection mechanisms using RFC6130.
Status of this Memo
This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.
Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). Note that other groups may also distribute
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Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
time. It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."
This Internet-Draft will expire on February 28, 2017.
Copyright Notice
Copyright (c) 2016 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
document authors. All rights reserved.
This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
Provisions Relating to IETF Documents
(http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info) in effect on the date of
publication of this document. Please review these documents
carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect
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to this document. Code Components extracted from this document must
include Simplified BSD License text as described in Section 4.e of
the Trust Legal Provisions and are provided without warranty as
described in the Simplified BSD License.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. SMF Threats Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Threats to Duplicate Packet Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.1. Attack to The Hop Limit Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4.2. Threats to Identification-based Duplicate Packet
Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.1. Pre-activation Attacks (Pre-Play) . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.2.2. De-activation Attacks (Sequence Number wrangling) . . 8
4.3. Threats to Hash-based Duplicate Packet Detection . . . . . 9
4.3.1. Attack on Hash-Assistant Value . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Threats to Relay Set Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.1. Relay Set Selection Common Threats . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2. Threats to E-CDS Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
5.2.1. Link Spoofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.2.2. Identity Spoofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.3. Threats to S-MPR Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.4. Threats to MPR-CDS Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
7. IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
8. Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9. References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.1. Normative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
9.2. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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1. Introduction
This document analyzes security threats to the Simplified Multicast
Forwarding (SMF) mechanism [RFC6621]. SMF aims at providing basic
Internet Protocol (IP) multicast forwarding, in a way that is
suitable for limited wireless mesh and Mobile Ad hoc NETworks
(MANET). SMF is constituted of two major functional components:
Duplicate Packet Detection and Relay Set Selection.
SMF is typically used in decentralized wireless environments, and is
potentially exposed to various attacks and misconfigurations. Some
of these attacks and misconfigurtions, in a wireless enviroment,
represent threats of particular significance as compared to what they
would do in wired networks. [RFC6621] briefly discusses several of
these, but does not define any explicit security measures for
protecting the integrity of the protocol.
This document is based on the assumption that no additional security
mechanism such as IPsec is used in the IP layer, as not all MANET
deployments may be suitable to deploy common IP protection mechanisms
(e.g., because of limited resources of MANET routers to support the
IPsec stack). It assumes that there is no lower-layer protection
either. The document analyzes possible attacks on and mis-
configurations of SMF and outlines the consequences of such attacks/
mis-configurations to the state maintained by SMF in each router.
In the Security Considerations section of [RFC6621], denial-of-
service attack scenarios are briefly discussed. This document
further analyzes and describes the potential vulnerabilities of and
attack vectors for SMF. While completeness in such analysis is
always a goal, no claims of being complete are made. The goal of
this document is to be helpful for when deploying SMF in a network
and needing to understand the risks thereby incurred - as well as for
providing a reference and documented experience with SMF as input for
possibly future developments of SMF.
This document is not intended to propose solutions to the threats
described. [RFC7182] provides a framework that can be used with SMF,
and depending on how it is used - may offer some degree of protection
against the threats described in this document related to identity
spoofing.
This document also updates [RFC7186], specifically with respect to
threats to relay set selection mechanisms which are using [RFC6130].
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2. Terminology
This document uses the terminology and notation defined in [RFC5444],
[RFC6130], [RFC6621] and [RFC4949].
Additionally, this document introduces the following terminology:
SMF router: A MANET router, running SMF as specified in [RFC6621].
Attacker: A device that is present in the network and intentionally
seeks to compromise the information bases in SMF routers. It may
generate syntactically correct SMF control messages.
Legitimate SMF router: An SMF router that is correctly configured
and not compromised by an attacker.
3. SMF Threats Overview
SMF requires an external dynamic neighborhood discovery mechanism in
order to maintain suitable topological information describing its
immediate neighborhood, and thereby allowing it to select reduced
relay sets for forwarding multicast data traffic. Such an external
dynamic neighborhood discovery mechanism may be provided by lower-
layer interface information, by a concurrently operating MANET
routing protocol that already maintains such information such as
[RFC7181], or by explicitly using MANET Neighborhood Discovery
Protocol (NHDP) [RFC6130]. If NHDP is used for both 1-hop and 2-hop
neighborhood discovery by SMF, SMF implicitly inherits the
vulnerabilities of NHDP discussed in [RFC7186]. As SMF relies on
NHDP to assist in network layer 2-hop neighborhood discovery (no
matter if other lower-layer mechanisms are used for 1-hop
neighborhood discovery), this document assumes that NHDP is used in
SMF. The threats that are NHDP-specific are indicated explicitly.
Based on neighborhood discovery mechanisms, [RFC6621] specifies two
principal functional components: Duplicate Packet Detection (DPD) and
Relay Set Selection (RSS).
DPD is required by SMF in order to be able to detect duplicate
packets and eliminate their redundant forwarding. An Attacker has
two ways in which to harm the DPD mechanisms, specifically it can:
o "deactivate" DPD, so as to make it such that duplicate packets are
not correctly detected, and that as a consequence they are
(redundantly) transmitted, increasing the load on the network,
draining the batteries of the routers involved, etc.
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o "pre-activate" DPD, so as to make DPD detect a later arriving
(valid) packet as being a duplicate, which therefore won't be
forwarded.
Attacks on DPD can be achieved by replaying existing packets, by
wrangling sequence numbers, by manipulating hash values, etc., and
are detailed in Section 4.
RSS produces a reduced relay set for forwarding multicast data
packets across the MANET. [RFC6621] specifies several relay set
algorithms, including E-CDS (Essential Connected Dominating Set)
[RFC5614], S-MPR (Source-based Multi-point Relay, as known from
[RFC3626] and [RFC7181]), or MPR-CDS [MPR-CDS], for use in SMF. An
Attacker can disrupt the RSS algorithm, and thereby SMF operation, by
degrading it to classical flooding, or by "masking" certain parts of
the network from the multicasting domain. Attacks on RSS algorithms
are detailed in Section 5.
Other than the attacks on DPD and RSS, a common vulnerability of
MANETs is "jamming", i.e., a device generates massive amounts of
interfering radio transmissions, which will prevent legitimate
traffic (e.g., control traffic as well as data traffic) on part of a
network. The attacks on DPD and RSS can be further enhanced by
jamming.
4. Threats to Duplicate Packet Detection
Duplicate Packet Detection (DPD) is required for packet dissemination
in MANETs because: (1) packets may be transmitted via the same
physical interface as the one over which they were received, and (2)
a router may receive multiple copies of the same packet (on the same,
or on different interfaces) from different neighbors. DPD is thus
used to check if an incoming packet has been previously received or
not.
DPD is achieved by maintaining a record of recently processed
multicast packets, and comparing later received multicast packets
herewith. A duplicate packet detected is silently dropped and is not
inserted into the forwarding path of that router, nor is it delivered
to an application. DPD, as proposed by SMF, supports both IPv4 and
IPv6 and for each suggests two duplicate packet detection mechanisms:
1) header content identification-based DPD (I-DPD), using packet
headers, in combination with flow state, to estimate temporal
uniqueness of a packet, and 2) hash-based DPD (H-DPD), employing
hashing of selected header fields and payload for the same effect.
In the Security Considerations section of [RFC6621], a selection of
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threats to DPD are briefly introduced. This section expands on that
discussion, and describes how to effectively launch the attacks on
DPD - for example, by way of manipulating jitter and/or the Hash-
Assistant Value. In the remainder of this section, common threats to
packet detection mechanisms are first discussed. Then the threats to
I-DPD and H-DPD are introduced separately. The threats described in
this section are applicable to general SMF implementations, no matter
if NHDP is used or not.
4.1. Attack to The Hop Limit Field
One immediate DoS attack is based on manipulating the Time-to-Live
(TTL, for IPv4) or hop limit (for IPv6) field. As routers only
forward packets with TTL > 1, an attacker can forward an otherwise
valid packet, while drastically reducing the TTL hereof. This will
inhibit recipient routers from later forwarding the same multicast
packet, even if received with a different TTL - essentially an
attacker thus can instruct its neighbors to block forwarding of valid
multicast packets.
For example, in Figure 1, router A forwards a multicast packet with a
TTL of 64 to the network. A, B, and C are legitimate SMF routers,
and X is an attacker. In a wireless environment, jitter is commonly
used to avoid systematic collisions in MAC protocols [RFC5148]. An
attacker can thus increase the probability that its invalid packets
arrive first by retransmitting them without applying jitter. In this
example, router X forwards the packet without applying jitter and
reduces the TTL to 1. Router C thus records the duplicate detection
value (hash value for H-DPD, or the header content of the packets for
I-DPD) but does (due to TTL == 1) not forward. When a second copy
the same packet, with a non-maliciously manipulated TTL value (63 in
this case), arrives from router B, it will be discarded as duplicate
packet.
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.---.
| X |
--'---' __
packet with TTL=64 / \ packet with TTL=1
/ \
.---. .---.
| A | | C |
'---' '---'
packet with TTL=64 \ .---. /
\-- | B |__/ packet with TTL=63
'---'
Figure 1
As the TTL of a packet is intended to be manipulated by
intermediaries forwarding it, classic methods such as integrity check
values (e.g., digital signatures) are typically calculated with
setting TTL fields to some pre-determined value (e.g., 0) - such is
for example the case for IPsec Authentication Headers - rendering
such an attack more difficult to both detect and counter.
If the attacker has access to a "wormhole" through the network (a
directional antenna, a tunnel to a collaborator or a wired
connection, allowing it to bridge parts of a network otherwise
distant), it can make sure that the packets with such an artificially
reduced TTL arrive before their unmodified counterparts.
4.2. Threats to Identification-based Duplicate Packet Detection
I-DPD uses a specific DPD identifier in the packet header to identify
a packet. By default, such packet identification is not provided by
the IP packet header (for both IPv4 and IPv6). Therefore, additional
identification headers, such as the fragment header, a hop-by-hop
header option, or IPSec sequencing, must be employed in order to
support I-DPD. The uniqueness of a packet can then be identified by
the source IP address of the packet originator and the sequence
number (from the fragment header, hop-by-hop header option, or
IPsec). By doing so, each intermediate router can keep a record of
recently received packets and determine whether the incoming packet
has been received or not.
4.2.1. Pre-activation Attacks (Pre-Play)
In a wireless environment, or across any other shared channel, an
attacker can perceive the identification tuple (source IP address,
sequence number) of a packet. It is possible to generate a packet
with the same (source IP address, sequence number) pair with invalid
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content. If sequence number progression is predictable, then it is
trivial to generate and inject invalid packets with "future"
identification information into the network. If these invalid
packets arrive before the legitimate packets that they are spoofing,
the latter will be treated as a duplicate and discarded. This can
prevent multicast packets from reaching parts of the network.
Figure 2 gives an example of pre-activation attack. A, B and C are
legitimate SMF routers, and X is the attacker. The line between the
routers presents the packet forwarding. Router A is the source and
originates a multicast packet with sequence number n. When router X
receives the packet, it generates an invalid packet with the source
address of A and sequence number n. If the invalid packet arrives at
router C before the forwarding of router B, the valid packet will be
dropped by C as a duplicate packet. An attacker can manipulate
jitter to make sure that the invalid packets arrive first. Router X
can even generate packets with future sequence numbers (if they are
predictable), so that the future legitimate packets with the same
sequence numbers will be dropped as duplicate ones.
.---.
| X |
--'---' __
packet with seq=n / \ invalid packet with seq=n
/ \
.---. .---.
| A | | C |
'---' '---'
packet with seq=n \ .---. /
\-- | B |__/ valid packet with seq=n
'---'
Figure 2
As SMF currently does not have any timestamp mechanisms to protect
data packets, there is no viable way to detect such pre-play attacks
by way of timestamps. Especially, if the attack is based on
manipulation of jitter, the validation of timestamp would not be
helpful because the timing is still valid (but with much less value).
4.2.2. De-activation Attacks (Sequence Number wrangling)
An attacker can also seek to de-activate DPD, by modifying the
sequence number in packets that it forwards. Thus, routers will not
be able to detect an actual duplicate packet as a duplicate - rather,
they will treat them as new packets, i.e., process and forward them.
This is similar to DoS attacks, as each packet that is considered
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unique will be multicasted: for a network with n routers, there will
be n-1 retransmissions. This can easily cause the "broadcast storm"
problem discussed in [MOBICOM99]. The consequence of this attack is
an increased channel load, the origin of which appears to be a router
other than the attacker.
Given the topology shown in Figure 2, on receiving a packet with
seq=n, the attacker X can forward the packet with modified sequence
number n+i. This has two consequences: firstly, router C will not be
able to detect the packet forwarded by X is a duplicate packet;
secondly, the consequent packet with seq=n+i generated by router A
probably will be treated as duplicate packet, and dropped by router
C.
4.3. Threats to Hash-based Duplicate Packet Detection
When explicit sequence numbers in packet headers is undesired, hash-
based DPD can be used. A hash of the non-mutable fields in the
header of and the data payload can be generated, and recorded at the
intermediate routers. A packet can thus be uniquely identified by
the source IP address of the packet and its hash-value.
The hash algorithm used by SMF is being applied only to provide a
reduced probability of collision and is not being used for
cryptographic or authentication purposes. Consequently, a digest
collision is still possible. In case the source router or gateway
identifies that it recently has generated or injected a packet with
the same hash-value, it inserts a "Hash-Assist Value (HAV)" IPv6
header option into the packet, such that calculating the hash also
over this HAV will render the resulting value unique.
4.3.1. Attack on Hash-Assistant Value
The HAV header is helpful when a digest collision happens. However,
it also introduces a potential vulnerability. As the HAV option is
only added when the source or the ingress SMF router detects that the
coming packet has digest collision with previously generated packets,
it actually can be regarded as a "flag" of potential digest
collision. An attacker can discover the HAV header, and be able to
conclude that a hash collision is possible if the HAV header is
removed. By doing so, the modified packet received by other SMF
routers will be treated as duplicate packets, and be dropped because
they have the same hash value with the precedent packet.
In the example of Figure 3, Router A and B are legitimate SMF
routers; X is an attacker. A generates two packets P1 and P2, with
the same hash value h(P1)=h(P2)=x. Based on the SMF specification, a
hash-assistant value (HAV) is added to the latter packet P2, so that
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h(P2+HAV)=x', to avoid digest collision. When the attacker X detects
the HAV of P2, it is able to conclude that a collision is possible by
removing the HAV header. By doing so, packet P2 will be treated as
duplicate packet by router B, and be dropped.
P2 P1 P2 P1
.---. h(P2+HAV)=x' h(P1)=x .---. h(P2)=x h(P1)=x .---.
| A |---------------------------> | X | ----------------------> | B |
`---' `---' `---'
Figure 3
5. Threats to Relay Set Selection
A framework for RSS mechanism, rather than a specific RSS algorithm
is provided by SMF. It is normally achieved by distributed
algorithms that can dynamically generate a topological Connected
Dominating Set based on 1-hop and 2-hop neighborhood information. In
this section, the common threats to the RSS framework are first
discussed. Then the three commonly used algorithms: Essential
Connection Dominating Set (E-CDS) algorithm, Source-based Multipoint
Relay (S-MPR) and Multipoint Relay Connected Dominating Set (MPR-CDS)
are analyzed. As the relay set selection is based on 1-hop and 2-hop
neighborhood information, which rely on NHDP, the threats described
in this section are NHDP-specific.
5.1. Relay Set Selection Common Threats
Common (i.e., non algorithm specific) threats to RSS algorithms,
including Denial of Service attack, eavesdropping, message timing
attack and broadcast storm have been discussed in [RFC7186].
5.2. Threats to E-CDS Algorithm
The "Essential Connected Dominating Set" (E-CDS) algorithm [RFC5614]
forms a single CDS mesh for the SMF operating region. It requires
2-hop neighborhood information (the identify of the neighbors, the
link to the neighbors and neighbors' priority information) collected
through NHDP or another process.
An SMF Router will select itself as a relay, if:
o The SMF Router has a higher priority than all of its symmetric
neighbors, or
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o There does not exist a path from the neighbor with largest
priority to any other neighbor, via neighbors with greater
priority.
An attacker can disrupt the E-CDS algorithm by link spoofing or
identity spoofing.
5.2.1. Link Spoofing
Link spoofing implies that an attacker advertises non-existing links
to another router (present in the network or not).
An attacker can declare itself with high route priority, and spoofs
the links to as many legitimate SMF Routers as possible to declare
high connectivity. By doing so, it can prevent legitimate SMF
Routers from self-selecting as relays. As the "super" relay in the
network, the attacker can manipulate the traffic relayed by it.
5.2.2. Identity Spoofing
Identity spoofing implies that an attacker determines and makes use
of the identity of other legitimate routers, without being authorized
to do so. The identity of other routers can be obtained by
overhearing the control messages or the source/destination address
from datagrams. The attacker can then generate control or datagram
traffic, pretending to be a legitimate router.
Because E-CDS self-selection is based on the router priority value,
an attacker can spoof the identity of other legitimate routers, and
declares a different router priority value. If it declares a higher
priority of a spoofed router, it can prevent other routers from
selecting themselves as relays. On the other hand, if the attacker
declares lower priority of a spoofed router, it can force other
routers to selecting themselves as relays, to degrade the multicast
forwarding to classical flooding.
5.3. Threats to S-MPR Algorithm
The source-based multipoint relay (S-MPR) set selection algorithm
enables individual routers, using 2-hop topology information, to
select relays from their set of neighboring routers. MPRs are
selected so that forwarding to the router's complete 2-hop neighbor
set is covered.
An SMF router forwards a multicast packet if and only if:
o the packet has not been received before, and
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o the neighbor from which the packet was received has selected the
router as MPR.
Because MPR calculation is based on the willingness declared by the
SMF routers, and the connectivity of the routers, it can be disrupted
by both link spoofing and identity spoofing. The threats and its
impacts have been illustrated in section 5.1 of [RFC7186].
5.4. Threats to MPR-CDS Algorithm
MPR-CDS is a derivative from S-MPR. The main difference between
S-MPR and MPR-CDS is that while S-MPR forms a different broadcast
tree for each source in the network, MPR-CDS forms a unique broadcast
tree for all sources in the network.
As MPR-CDS combines E-CDS and S-MPR and the simple combination of the
two algorithms does not address the weakness, the vulnerabilities of
E-CDS and S-MPR that discussed in Section 5.2 and Section 5.3 apply
to MPR-CDS also.
6. Security Considerations
This document does not specify a protocol or a procedure. The whole
document, however, reflects on security considerations for SMF for
packet dissemination in MANETs. Possible attacks to the two main
functional components of SMF, duplicate packet detection and relay
set selection, are analyzed and documented.
Although [RFC6621] nor this document propose mechanisms to secure the
SMF protocol, there are several possibilities to secure the protocol
in the future and driving new work by suggesting which threats
discussed in the previous sections could be addressed.
For the I-DPD mechanism, employing randomized packet sequence numbers
can avoid some pre-activation attacks based on sequence number
prediction. If predicable sequence numbers have to be used, applying
timestamps can mitigate pre-activation attacks.
For the H-DPD mechanism, applying cryptographically strong hashes can
make the digest collisions effectively impossible, and avoid the use
of hash-assistant value.
[RFC7182] specifies a framework for representing cryptographic
Integrity Check Values (ICVs) and timestamps in MANETs. Based on
[RFC7182], [RFC7183] specifies integrity and replay protection for
NHDP using shared keys, as a mandatory-to-implement security
mechanism. If SMF is using NHDP as neighborhood discovery protocol,
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implementing [RFC7183] remains advisable so as to enable integrity
protection for NHDP control messages. This can help mitigating
threats related to identity spoofing through the exchange of HELLO
messages, and provides some general protection against identity
spoofing by admitting only trusted routers to the network using ICVs
in HELLO messages.
Using ICVs does, of course, not address the problem of attackers,
able to also generate valid ICVs. Detection and exclusion of such
attackers is, in general, a challenge, which is not unrelated to how
[RFC7182] is used. If, for example, it is used with a shared key (as
per [RFC7183]), excluding single attackers generally is not aided by
the use of ICVs. However if routers have sufficient capabilities to
support the use of asymmetric keys (as per [RFC7859]), part of
addressing this challenge becomes one of providing key revocation, in
a way that does not in itself introduce additional vulnerabilities.
As [RFC7183] does not protect the integrity of the multicast user
datagram, and as no mechanism is specified by SMF for doing so,
duplicate packet detection remains vulnerable to the threats
introduced in Section 4.
If pre-activation/de-activation attacks and attack on hash-assistant
value of the multicast datagrams are to be mitigated, a datagram-
level integrity protection mechanism is desired, by taking
consideration of the identity field or hash-assistant value.
However, this would not be helpful for the attacks on the TTL (or hop
limit for IPv6) field, because the mutable fields are generally not
considered when ICV is calculated.
7. IANA Considerations
This document contains no actions for IANA.
[RFC Editor: please remove this section prior to publication.]
8. Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Christopher Dearlove (BAE Systems
ATC) who provided detailed review and valuable comments.
9. References
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9.1. Normative References
[RFC6130] Clausen, T., Dean, J., and C. Dearlove, "Mobile Ad Hoc
Network (MANET) Neighborhood Discovery Protocol (NHDP)",
RFC 6130, April 2011.
[RFC6621] Macker, J., "Simplified Multicast Forwarding", RFC 6621,
May 2012.
[RFC7186] Yi, J., Herberg, U., and T. Clausen, "Security Threats for
the Neighborhood Discovery Protocol (NHDP)", RFC 7186,
April 2014.
9.2. Informative References
[MOBICOM99]
Ni, S., Tseng, Y., Chen, Y., and J. Sheu, "The Broadcast
Storm Problem in a Mobile Ad Hoc Network", Proceedings of
the 5th annual ACM/IEEE international conference on Mobile
computing and networking, 1999.
[MPR-CDS] Adjih, C., Jacquet, P., and L. Viennot, "Computing
Connected Dominating Sets with Multipoint Relays", Journal
of Ad Hoc and Sensor Wireless Networks 2002, January 2002.
[RFC3626] Clausen, T. and P. Jacquet, "The Optimized Link State
Routing Protocol", RFC 3626, October 2003.
[RFC4949] Shirey, R., "Internet Security Glossary, Version 2",
RFC 4949, August 2007.
[RFC5148] Clausen, T., Dearlove, C., and B. Adamson, "Jitter
Considerations in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs)",
RFC 5148, February 2008.
[RFC5444] Clausen, T., Dearlove, C., Dean, J., and C. Adjih,
"Generalized MANET Packet/Message Format", RFC 5444,
February 2009.
[RFC5614] Ogier, R. and P. Spagnolo, "Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET)
Extension of OSPF Using Connected Dominating Set (CDS)
Flooding", RFC 5614, August 2009.
[RFC7181] Clausen, T., Dearlove, C., Jacquet, P., and U. Herberg,
"The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol version 2",
RFC 7181, April 2014.
[RFC7182] Herberg, U., Clausen, T., and C. Dearlove, "Integrity
Yi, et al. Expires February 28, 2017 [Page 14]
Internet-Draft Security Threats for SMF August 2016
Check Value and Timestamp TLV Definitions for Mobile Ad
Hoc Networks (MANETs)", RFC 7182, April 2014.
[RFC7183] Herberg, U., Dearlove, C., and T. Clausen, "Integrity
Protection for the Neighborhood Discovery Protocol (NHDP)
and Optimized Link State Routing Protocol Version 2
(OLSRv2)", RFC 7183, April 2014.
[RFC7859] Dearlove, C., "Identity-Based Signatures for Mobile Ad Hoc
Network (MANET) Routing Protocols", RFC 7859,
DOI 10.17487/RFC7859, May 2016,
<http://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7859>.
Authors' Addresses
Jiazi Yi
Ecole Polytechnique
91128 Palaiseau Cedex,
France
Phone: +33 1 77 57 80 85
Email: jiazi@jiaziyi.com
URI: http://www.jiaziyi.com/
Thomas Heide Clausen
Ecole Polytechnique
91128 Palaiseau Cedex,
France
Phone: +33 6 6058 9349
Email: T.Clausen@computer.org
URI: http://www.thomasclausen.org/
Ulrich Herberg
Email: ulrich@herberg.name
URI: http://www.herberg.name/
Yi, et al. Expires February 28, 2017 [Page 15]