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Deep Audio Redundancy (DRED) Extension for the Opus Codec
draft-ietf-mlcodec-opus-dred-02

Document Type Active Internet-Draft (mlcodec WG)
Authors Jean-Marc Valin , Jan Buethe
Last updated 2024-10-21
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draft-ietf-mlcodec-opus-dred-02
Internet Engineering Task Force                                JM. Valin
Internet-Draft                                                    Google
Updates: 6716 (if approved)                                    J. Buethe
Intended status: Standards Track                     Xiph.Org Foundation
Expires: 24 April 2025                                   21 October 2024

       Deep Audio Redundancy (DRED) Extension for the Opus Codec
                    draft-ietf-mlcodec-opus-dred-02

Abstract

   This document proposes a mechanism for embedding very low bitrate
   deep audio redundancy (DRED) within the Opus codec (RFC6716)
   bitstream.

Status of This Memo

   This Internet-Draft is submitted in full conformance with the
   provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79.

   Internet-Drafts are working documents of the Internet Engineering
   Task Force (IETF).  Note that other groups may also distribute
   working documents as Internet-Drafts.  The list of current Internet-
   Drafts is at https://datatracker.ietf.org/drafts/current/.

   Internet-Drafts are draft documents valid for a maximum of six months
   and may be updated, replaced, or obsoleted by other documents at any
   time.  It is inappropriate to use Internet-Drafts as reference
   material or to cite them other than as "work in progress."

   This Internet-Draft will expire on 24 April 2025.

Copyright Notice

   Copyright (c) 2024 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the
   document authors.  All rights reserved.

   This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal
   Provisions Relating to IETF Documents (https://trustee.ietf.org/
   license-info) in effect on the date of publication of this document.
   Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights
   and restrictions with respect to this document.  Code Components
   extracted from this document must include Revised BSD License text as
   described in Section 4.e of the Trust Legal Provisions and are
   provided without warranty as described in the Revised BSD License.

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Table of Contents

   1.  Introduction  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
     1.1.  Requirements Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
   2.  DRED Description  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   2
     2.1.  Acoustic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   3
     2.2.  Rate-Distortion-Optimized Variational Autoencoder
           (RDO) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   5
       2.2.1.  Encoder architecture  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   6
       2.2.2.  Decoder architecture  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   7
       2.2.3.  Statistical data  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  10
       2.2.4.  Vocoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
   3.  DRED Extension Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  19
     3.1.  Latent decoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  21
   4.  IANA Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
     4.1.  Opus Media Type Update  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  22
     4.2.  Mapping to SDP Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
   5.  Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
   6.  References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
     6.1.  Normative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  23
     6.2.  Informative References  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24
   Authors' Addresses  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  24

1.  Introduction

   This document proposes a mechanism for embedding very low bitrate
   deep audio redundancy (DRED) within the Opus codec [RFC6716]
   bitstream.

1.1.  Requirements Language

   The key words "MUST", "MUST NOT", "REQUIRED", "SHALL", "SHALL NOT",
   "SHOULD", "SHOULD NOT", "RECOMMENDED", "NOT RECOMMENDED", "MAY", and
   "OPTIONAL" in this document are to be interpreted as described in BCP
   14 [RFC2119] [RFC8174] when, and only when, they appear in all
   capitals, as shown here.

2.  DRED Description

   Opus already includes a low-bitrate redundancy (LBRR) mechanism to
   transmit redundancy in-band to improve robustness to packet loss.
   LBRR is however limited to a single frame of redundancy, and
   typically uses about 2/3 of the bitrate of the "regular" Opus packet.
   The DRED extension allows up to one second or more redundancy to be
   included in each packet, using a bitrate about 1/50 of the regular
   Opus bitrate.  Although the amount of redundancy that can be encoded
   in a packet is unbounded, there appears to be little use to including
   more than a few seconds.

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   DRED is transmitted within the Opus padding, as described in
   [opus-extension].  In the case of multi-frame packets, there SHOULD
   only be one DRED extension per packet and it SHOULD be associated
   with the first frame of the packet.  In all cases, there MUST NOT be
   more than one DRED extension associated to the same frame.

   The DRED encoder SHOULD remove any leading or trailing silence from
   the redundant audio data.  That being said, silence that occurs
   between speech segments cannot be left out.  Any Selective Forwarding
   Unit (SFU) designed not to forward silent packets SHOULD still
   forward DRED-containing packets from the last known active source.
   Conference mixers SHOULD either forward DRED from the last known
   active source or re-encode DRED from the mixed audio.

   DRED works by having the encoder transmit acoustic features in the
   Opus bitstream.  On the receiver side, if packets are lost, then the
   first packet to arrive will contain the acoustic features for a
   certain duration in the past.  The decoder can then use the features
   to synthesize the missing speech -- either from the last received or
   from the last audio samples produced by packet loss concealment
   (PLC).  Although the synthesized speech samples should be consistent
   with the last known samples at the point of the transition, the
   features do not contain waveform-specific or phase-specific
   information so the synthesized speech waveform will significantly
   deviate from the original waveform, despite sounding similar.

2.1.  Acoustic Features

   DRED uses 20 acoustic features to synthesize speech.  The first 18
   are Bark-frequency cepstral coefficients (BFCC) and the last
   represent the pitch frequency and the voicing information.  The BFCC
   features are based on bands that match the CELT bands, as shown in
   Table 1.

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     +======+======================+================+===============+
     | Band | Start frequency (Hz) | Center         | End frequency |
     |      |                      | frequency (Hz) | (Hz)          |
     +======+======================+================+===============+
     | 0    | 0                    | 0              | 200           |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 1    | 0                    | 200            | 400           |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 2    | 200                  | 400            | 600           |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 3    | 400                  | 600            | 800           |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 4    | 600                  | 800            | 1000          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 5    | 800                  | 1000           | 1200          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 6    | 1000                 | 1200           | 1400          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 7    | 1200                 | 1400           | 1600          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 8    | 1400                 | 1600           | 2000          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 9    | 1600                 | 2000           | 2400          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 10   | 2000                 | 2400           | 2800          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 11   | 2400                 | 2800           | 3200          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 12   | 2800                 | 3200           | 4000          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 13   | 3200                 | 4000           | 4800          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 14   | 4000                 | 4800           | 5600          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 15   | 4800                 | 5600           | 6800          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 16   | 5600                 | 6800           | 8000          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+
     | 17   | 6800                 | 8000           | 8000          |
     +------+----------------------+----------------+---------------+

                    Table 1: Band definitions for DRED

   TODO: Specify exact computation of the cepstral features and voicing.
   Open question: how do we specify the neural pitch estimator?

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2.2.  Rate-Distortion-Optimized Variational Autoencoder (RDO)

   The features described above need to be transmitted to the decoder
   with the fewest number of bits possible.  Although it is not
   acceptable to make redundancy from one packet depend on the
   redundancy of another packet, we can use as much prediction as we
   like within one packet.  In practical use, the same audio feature
   vector is included in many different packets (50 for 1 second
   redundancy).  For that reason, we do not want to fully re-encode
   acoustic features for each packet.  On the decoder side, since the
   most recent audio is the most likely to be used, we minimize the
   computation time by having the audio encoded from the most recent,
   going backward in time.

   TODO: Specify the cepstral features and voicing.  Open question: how
   do we specify the neural pitch estimator?

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                                 Audio
                                   |
                                   v
                           +---------------+
                           | RDOVAE encoder|
                           +---------------+
                                   |
                                   v
       +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
       | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L | L |
       +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
       | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S | S |
       +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
                                         |   |   |
                                         v   |   |
               +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |   |
    decoder <--| L |   | L |   | L |   | L | |   |
               +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |   |
                                       | S | |   |
                                       +---+ |   |
                                             v   |
                   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |
        decoder <--| L |   | L |   | L |   | L | |
                   +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ |
                                           | S | |
                                           +---+ |
                                                 v
                       +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
            decoder <--| L |   | L |   | L |   | L |
                       +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
                                               | S |
                                               +---+

                      Figure 1: DRED encoding/decoding

2.2.1.  Encoder architecture

   Every 20 ms, the encoder takes in a pair of 20-dimensional acoustic
   feature vectors as input and produces one initial state (IS) and one
   latent vector.  Each latent vector encodes 40 ms (their information
   overlaps), so only half the latent vectors need to be transmitted.
   Although an encoder is provided for reference, the encoder
   architecture is not normative.  Each redundancy packet contains the
   latest initial state, along with latent vectors ordered from the
   latest (the one aligned with the initial state) to the earliest one
   the encoder includes.  Each conponent of the IS and latent vectors
   are quantized and then entropy-coded following a Laplace
   distribution.  The same procedure is used for both the latent vectors

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   and the initial state (we will describe the process for a latent
   variable).  The quantized index X is obtained by scaling the i'th
   latent variable z_i by a scaling factor s_{i,q} that depends on both
   i and on the quantizer q.  We then apply a "dead-zone" function
   zeta(z) = z - d*tanh(z / (d + epsilon)), where d also depends on i
   and q, and epsilon=0.1.  The result is then rounded to the nearest
   integer: X = round(zeta(s_{i,q}*z_i)).  The Laplace distribution used
   for entropy coding is parameterized with a probability that the value
   is zero (p0), as well as a decay factor r (0 < r < 1).  Both p0 and r
   depend on i and q.  The probability p(X) for a coefficient is given
   by:

                             /
                             | p0               ,   if X = 0
                             |
                      P(X) = <             |X|
                             | (1 - p0) * r     ,   if X != 0
                             | ---------------
                             \   2 * (1 - r)

2.2.2.  Decoder architecture

   Unlike the encoder, the decoder is normative.  The decoder uses the
   same Laplace distribution above to decode the symbols and then scales
   them back by 1/s_{i,q}. The initial state is used as input to
   initialize the decoder's gated recurrent units (GRUs).  The latent
   vectors are used one at a time as input the DNN decoder, which
   produces 4 vectors of 20 acoustic features for each input latent
   vector.

   The decoder is mostly structured as a DenseNet network, with 5 sets
   of alternating GRU and convolutional layers.  Let gru1..gru5 denote
   the 5 GRUs, conv1..conv5 denote the 5 convolutional layers,
   hidden_init/gru_init/dense1/output denote fully-connected layers,
   glu1..glu5 denote gated linear units (GLUs), and cat() denote tensor
   concatenation.  All GRU layers have 96 outputs (number of neurons)
   and all convolutional layers have 32 outputs.  Despite using a
   functional notation, both the GRU and convolutional layers have an
   internal state when used one latent vector at a time.  The fully-
   connected layers all have different sizes.  Unless otherwise noted,
   the GRUs, convolutional and fully-connected layers all use tanh
   output activations and the GRUs use sigmoid as gate activation.  GLUs
   are defined as:

                      L(y) = sigmoid(W*y)*y

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   where y is the input and W is a square matrix of the same dimensions
   as y.  The decoder starts with the 18-dimensional initial state
   vector IS.  The IS is used to compute the GRU initialization vector V
   using both hidden_init and gru_init:

                      V = gru_init(hidden_init(IS))

   where hidden_init has 18 inputs and 128 output, and D2 has 128 inputs
   and 480 (5*96) outputs.  The components of V are split (sequentially)
   into the V1..V5 initialization vectors (original state before the
   decoding process) for GRUs gru1..gru5.  Let Z be the decoded
   20-dimensional latent vector for a particular 40-ms chunk.  From
   there, the DenseNet structure can be expressed as:

                      t1 = dense1(Z)
                      t2 = cat(t1, conv1(t1))
                      t3 = cat(t2, glu1(gru1(t2)))
                      t4 = cat(t3, conv2(t3))
                      t5 = cat(t4, glu2(gru2(t4)))
                      t6 = cat(t5, conv3(t5))
                      t7 = cat(t6, glu3(gru3(t6)))
                      t8 = cat(t7, conv4(t7))
                      t9 = cat(t8, glu4(gru4(t8)))
                      t10 = cat(t9, conv5(t9))
                      t11 = cat(t10, glu5(gru5(t10)))
                      x = output(t11)

   where t1..tN are temporary vectors and "output" is the only layer to
   have a linear output activation, with 80 output neurons (4*20).  The
   dimensionality of t1..t11 (and corresponding GRU/convolutional input
   size) can be inferred from the concatenation operations.  The output
   vector x is split (sequentially) into 4 feature vectors of 20
   dimensions each that can be sent to the vocoder is packets are lost.

2.2.2.1.  Decoder weights

   The decoder weights are distributed outside of this document at
   https://media.xiph.org/opus/ietf/draft-ietf-mlcodec-opus-dred-
   01-weights.bin.  [FIXME: Find permanent location for the weights]
   They are distributed in a simple binary format that can also be used
   to separate them from an implementation binary for easier downloads.
   Each weight matrix is stored separately as a single array block.
   Each block starts with a 64-byte header, followed by a multiple of 64
   bytes of array data.  Blocks are self-delimited and can be
   concatenated into a single file.

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   The header starts with a 4-byte Header ID representing the string
   "DNNw", followed by a 4-byte Version number (currently 0).  The Type
   of the weights follows, encoded as a 4-byte integer, where value 0
   represents floating point weights and value 3 represents 8-bit signed
   integers.  The 4-byte Size field that follows represents the size of
   the data in bytes (not number of elements), and the Block Size is the
   number of data bytes rounded up to 64 bytes.  The block size
   indicates where the next block is expected.  Note that the block size
   does not include the header size.  The remaining 44 bytes of the
   header contain the name of the array.

   For implementation efficiency, the binary format can be implemented
   using any endianness, but for the purpose of distributing the
   reference weights, we use a little-endian format.

       0                   1                   2                   3
       0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                           Header ID                           |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                            Version                            |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                              Type                             |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                              Size                             |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                           Block size                          |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                         Name (44 bytes)                       |
      :                               ...                             :
      |                                                               |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                       Data (N x 64 bytes)                     |
      :                               ...                             :
      |                                                               |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

                      Figure 2: Binary Weights Format

   The decoder arrays are named dec_<layer name>_<variable name>, where
   the names are gru1..gru5, con1..conv5, and so on.  There is an
   optional _float or _int8 suffix for type when relevant.  Variable
   names can be "bias", "subias", "scale" and "weights".  TODO: more on
   how the matrices are used.

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2.2.3.  Statistical data

   We define 16 different quantization settings, ranging from q=0
   (higher bitrate) to q=15 (lower bitrate).  For each quantizer and for
   each latent variable or initial state coefficient, we have a
   normative scale (s), decay (r), and p0 value.  Note that the dead-
   zone parameters d are not normative.

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    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7|Q8|Q9|Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14| Q15 |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |0 |255|208|168|134|106|82 |64 |48|36|26|17 |10 |3  |3  |2  | 2   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |1 |255|219|187|160|137|117|101|81|70|50|23 |6  |6  |5  |3  | 2   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |2 |255|218|187|160|138|118|102|84|71|63|31 |7  |7  |5  |3  | 2   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |3 |255|217|186|159|137|118|102|87|76|66|53 |25 |11 |5  |2  | 1   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |4 |255|216|183|155|131|111|95 |79|67|57|48 |42 |35 |29 |24 | 21  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |5 |255|219|189|163|141|122|107|90|87|31|11 |3  |3  |2  |1  | 1   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |6 |255|218|187|160|138|119|103|87|72|45|18 |6  |5  |3  |2  | 2   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |7 |255|217|184|157|133|113|96 |78|67|53|34 |17 |6  |5  |4  | 3   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |8 |255|222|192|167|146|128|114|87|78|63|40 |9  |8  |6  |4  | 3   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |9 |255|217|184|157|135|115|99 |84|73|65|56 |48 |18 |11 |6  | 2   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |10|255|219|189|163|141|122|107|90|74|40|15 |5  |4  |3  |2  | 1   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |11|255|214|180|151|127|108|91 |76|65|56|47 |41 |35 |31 |27 | 24  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |12|255|215|181|152|129|109|93 |78|67|57|49 |43 |38 |33 |29 | 27  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |13|255|218|187|160|138|119|102|87|75|56|34 |19 |7  |4  |2  | 2   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |14|255|219|188|162|139|120|103|80|69|34|12 |3  |3  |2  |1  | 1   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |15|255|219|189|164|143|124|108|69|20|5 |0  |1  |1  |1  |1  | 0   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |16|255|217|185|158|136|117|101|86|76|67|58 |47 |15 |11 |7  | 6   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |17|255|217|184|157|135|115|99 |84|74|63|54 |47 |16 |10 |7  | 5   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |18|255|213|178|149|124|104|87 |72|60|50|42 |35 |29 |25 |21 | 18  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |19|255|215|181|152|127|105|86 |58|46|21|10 |2  |0  |0  |0  | 0   |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |20|255|214|179|149|125|104|87 |72|61|51|43 |36 |31 |27 |23 | 20  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+

                      Table 2: Scale values for latent

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   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |k |Q0|Q1|Q2|Q3|Q4|Q5|Q6 |Q7 |Q8 |Q9 |Q10|Q11|Q12| Q13 | Q14 | Q15 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |0 |1 |1 |0 |0 |0 |1 |1  |2  |3  |12 |27 |44 |178| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |1 |0 |0 |7 |17|29|45|70 |107|160|255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |2 |10|13|16|20|24|29|35 |41 |53 |255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |3 |0 |1 |5 |9 |14|20|26 |37 |51 |81 |124|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |4 |0 |0 |0 |1 |4 |6 |9  |11 |16 |24 |37 |53 |87 | 108 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |5 |6 |12|17|24|31|41|56 |85 |255|255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |6 |11|15|18|22|27|33|41 |48 |53 |255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |7 |0 |0 |0 |5 |11|17|27 |46 |75 |124|220|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |8 |0 |8 |25|43|66|94|133|168|231|255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |9 |0 |0 |2 |6 |11|16|23 |31 |44 |71 |104|158|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |10|7 |12|17|22|28|36|47 |59 |81 |255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |11|0 |0 |0 |1 |2 |4 |5  |7  |9  |12 |15 |19 |23 | 27  | 30  | 38  |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |12|0 |0 |1 |2 |4 |6 |9  |11 |14 |20 |28 |37 |57 | 65  | 75  | 96  |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |13|0 |3 |7 |11|16|21|28 |39 |54 |67 |255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |14|13|18|22|28|34|43|56 |72 |255|255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |15|0 |0 |4 |13|23|37|56 |255|255|255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |16|4 |7 |11|14|19|24|30 |39 |49 |70 |96 |123|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |17|0 |0 |3 |7 |11|16|21 |28 |38 |54 |73 |108|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |18|0 |0 |0 |0 |0 |0 |0  |0  |0  |0  |2  |3  |5  | 7   | 9   | 11  |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |19|5 |12|18|26|34|43|56 |84 |255|255|255|255|255| 255 | 255 | 255 |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+
   |20|0 |0 |0 |0 |0 |0 |1  |2  |3  |5  |8  |11 |14 | 16  | 18  | 21  |
   +==+==+==+==+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+=====+=====+=====+

                   Table 3: Dead zone values for latent

Valin & Buethe            Expires 24 April 2025                [Page 12]
Internet-Draft                  Opus DRED                   October 2024

   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7 |Q8 |Q9 |Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14|Q15|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |0 |233|228|222|214|204|191|176|155|135|106|66 |32 |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |1 |94 |85 |72 |59 |45 |32 |21 |10 |4  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |2 |91 |75 |58 |43 |29 |17 |9  |4  |2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |3 |112|96 |81 |65 |51 |38 |26 |16 |10 |4  |1  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |4 |149|138|125|109|93 |77 |61 |45 |32 |21 |12 |7  |3  |1  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |5 |65 |50 |36 |24 |14 |8  |4  |2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |6 |92 |75 |59 |43 |29 |18 |10 |5  |2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |7 |118|107|97 |74 |60 |48 |38 |29 |17 |6  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |8 |55 |47 |36 |27 |19 |13 |8  |3  |2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |9 |122|107|92 |76 |60 |46 |34 |22 |15 |9  |4  |2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |10|82 |67 |53 |40 |29 |20 |14 |8  |4  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |11|190|181|171|160|149|135|120|101|85 |68 |52 |38 |26 |17 |10 |6  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |12|175|165|154|143|128|113|98 |81 |67 |53 |41 |31 |23 |15 |9  |5  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |13|100|85 |70 |56 |42 |31 |21 |12 |6  |1  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |14|80 |64 |49 |35 |23 |14 |7  |2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |15|62 |47 |33 |21 |12 |6  |3  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |16|125|109|92 |75 |59 |43 |30 |18 |10 |5  |1  |1  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |17|130|114|98 |82 |66 |50 |37 |24 |15 |7  |2  |1  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |18|236|233|229|224|219|213|206|198|189|180|169|158|146|132|118|104|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |19|90 |72 |54 |37 |24 |15 |9  |3  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |20|219|213|207|199|190|181|172|160|148|133|118|103|88 |74 |62 |51 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+

                   Table 4: Decay (r) values for latent

Valin & Buethe            Expires 24 April 2025                [Page 13]
Internet-Draft                  Opus DRED                   October 2024

   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7 |Q8 |Q9 |Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14|Q15|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |0 |12 |14 |18 |22 |27 |35 |44 |57 |78 |106|152|201|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |1 |162|171|184|197|211|224|235|246|252|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |2 |137|147|158|171|184|198|212|228|241|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |3 |134|142|152|163|175|188|201|216|228|242|253|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |4 |107|118|126|135|144|155|166|179|192|207|223|235|248|253|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |5 |138|152|167|183|199|215|231|246|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |6 |118|130|144|158|174|190|206|223|237|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |7 |138|149|159|167|180|194|208|227|239|250|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |8 |201|209|220|229|237|243|248|253|254|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |9 |114|123|133|145|158|172|186|204|218|234|246|253|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |10|145|157|169|182|196|209|223|237|248|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |11|66 |75 |85 |96 |107|115|122|132|140|151|163|175|189|201|213|224|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |12|81 |91 |102|113|122|131|140|153|164|177|192|205|220|230|238|244|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |13|143|153|163|175|187|199|211|226|237|249|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |14|146|157|170|183|198|213|228|245|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |15|159|168|179|193|208|222|237|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |16|122|130|140|150|161|174|187|203|216|232|245|253|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |17|121|128|137|147|159|170|183|198|212|228|241|250|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |18|20 |23 |27 |32 |37 |43 |50 |58 |67 |76 |87 |98 |108|116|125|134|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |19|104|120|139|159|182|205|227|251|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |20|37 |43 |49 |57 |66 |75 |84 |96 |106|115|126|137|148|159|169|180|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+

                     Table 5: P(0) values for latent

Valin & Buethe            Expires 24 April 2025                [Page 14]
Internet-Draft                  Opus DRED                   October 2024

    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7|Q8|Q9|Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14| Q15 |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |0 |255|215|181|153|129|109|93 |78|67|58|51 |45 |40 |35 |31 | 27  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |1 |255|215|181|153|128|108|91 |77|65|55|47 |41 |36 |31 |27 | 24  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |2 |255|233|205|175|146|120|97 |77|62|49|40 |33 |27 |23 |19 | 15  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |3 |255|215|181|152|127|107|89 |74|62|53|44 |37 |32 |28 |24 | 21  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |4 |255|216|182|154|131|111|95 |81|70|63|57 |51 |47 |41 |36 | 31  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |5 |255|215|181|152|128|108|91 |76|64|55|46 |39 |34 |29 |25 | 21  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |6 |255|216|182|155|131|111|95 |81|71|65|60 |53 |47 |41 |36 | 32  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |7 |255|216|183|155|132|113|98 |87|79|79|78 |69 |62 |53 |46 | 40  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |8 |255|215|181|152|128|108|91 |77|65|56|47 |41 |36 |31 |27 | 24  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |9 |255|216|183|155|131|112|96 |82|71|62|54 |47 |41 |37 |34 | 42  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |10|121|114|102|84 |61 |43 |31 |1 |0 |2 |131|188|255|216|181| 151 |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |11|255|215|182|153|129|108|91 |77|65|55|47 |40 |34 |28 |24 | 20  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |12|255|217|184|155|130|110|92 |77|64|54|45 |38 |32 |27 |23 | 19  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |13|255|227|196|166|140|118|98 |82|69|57|48 |40 |34 |29 |24 | 20  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |14|255|216|182|154|130|110|93 |80|69|60|53 |47 |42 |37 |32 | 28  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |15|255|216|184|156|133|114|98 |87|77|72|66 |59 |52 |46 |40 | 36  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |16|255|216|184|156|134|115|100|91|82|77|67 |59 |52 |46 |40 | 36  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |17|255|216|183|155|131|110|93 |78|66|57|49 |42 |37 |32 |28 | 25  |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+
    |18|71 |65 |60 |54 |49 |45 |42 |45|49|92|189|235|255|213|177| 146 |
    +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+==+==+==+===+===+===+===+===+=====+

                      Table 6: Scale values for state

Valin & Buethe            Expires 24 April 2025                [Page 15]
Internet-Draft                  Opus DRED                   October 2024

   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7 |Q8 |Q9 |Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14|Q15|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |0 |13 |12 |11 |11 |11 |11 |11 |11 |11 |13 |12 |9  |7  |13 |19 |26 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |1 |16 |14 |12 |11 |9  |8  |7  |4  |4  |4  |4  |5  |7  |5  |3  |7  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |2 |9  |8  |7  |6  |6  |4  |3  |3  |2  |3  |2  |0  |3  |2  |4  |4  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |3 |6  |8  |8  |9  |9  |9  |10 |8  |8  |11 |11 |10 |15 |22 |28 |37 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |4 |20 |18 |17 |16 |15 |15 |15 |14 |13 |14 |13 |9  |9  |14 |21 |30 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |5 |10 |8  |7  |5  |4  |4  |3  |3  |2  |3  |4  |6  |8  |9  |10 |10 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |6 |13 |13 |13 |13 |13 |13 |14 |12 |12 |11 |2  |1  |10 |17 |24 |34 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |7 |35 |30 |25 |22 |19 |17 |16 |18 |15 |22 |0  |1  |0  |4  |7  |12 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |8 |13 |11 |9  |8  |6  |5  |4  |3  |2  |3  |3  |4  |9  |6  |2  |5  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |9 |15 |15 |15 |15 |15 |16 |17 |17 |18 |16 |20 |26 |34 |46 |75 |255|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |10|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|2  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |11|9  |7  |6  |5  |4  |3  |2  |1  |1  |0  |0  |1  |2  |2  |3  |3  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |12|11 |9  |6  |5  |3  |2  |2  |2  |2  |3  |4  |4  |3  |3  |3  |2  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |13|10 |8  |6  |5  |4  |3  |2  |2  |1  |2  |2  |2  |4  |3  |4  |1  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |14|23 |19 |17 |14 |12 |11 |9  |8  |8  |11 |9  |4  |4  |7  |9  |13 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |15|14 |14 |14 |15 |16 |17 |18 |20 |18 |0  |8  |13 |14 |23 |33 |50 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |16|26 |24 |21 |19 |17 |16 |12 |7  |0  |11 |14 |14 |17 |24 |32 |46 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |17|43 |38 |32 |27 |22 |18 |14 |7  |1  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |18|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|121|29 |4  |1  |0  |1  |4  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+

                   Table 7: Dead zone values for state

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   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7 |Q8 |Q9 |Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14|Q15|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |0 |207|199|190|181|169|158|145|130|116|103|90 |77 |66 |52 |39 |27 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |1 |224|218|212|205|196|187|177|165|152|139|126|112|101|87 |74 |60 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |2 |253|253|252|252|251|250|249|247|245|242|239|235|231|226|220|213|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |3 |207|199|190|180|169|157|144|128|113|99 |82 |68 |56 |46 |37 |30 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |4 |197|187|177|165|152|139|124|109|95 |84 |74 |64 |56 |42 |30 |19 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |5 |233|229|224|218|212|205|197|187|177|166|154|140|127|112|97 |81 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |6 |190|181|170|158|144|130|115|100|86 |78 |70 |60 |48 |36 |25 |16 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |7 |198|189|178|167|154|141|127|115|106|107|107|96 |86 |71 |57 |43 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |8 |232|227|223|217|210|203|194|183|173|161|149|136|124|111|99 |84 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |9 |180|168|156|143|128|112|97 |79 |64 |50 |37 |25 |17 |10 |7  |5  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |10|4  |3  |1  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |0  |19 |104|132|117|100|83 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |11|245|243|240|237|234|230|226|220|214|208|200|191|182|171|160|147|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |12|251|251|250|249|247|246|244|241|239|235|232|227|222|216|210|202|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |13|254|253|253|253|252|251|250|249|248|246|244|242|239|236|233|229|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |14|210|203|194|185|174|162|149|136|122|109|98 |88 |78 |64 |51 |38 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |15|173|162|149|135|120|105|91 |78 |67 |63 |53 |43 |32 |22 |15 |9  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |16|169|156|142|128|112|98 |85 |77 |71 |61 |48 |37 |28 |18 |10 |5  |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |17|223|218|212|205|197|188|179|166|155|143|131|120|110|99 |89 |79 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |18|22 |17 |12 |7  |4  |2  |1  |2  |11 |90 |166|183|188|178|164|150|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+

                   Table 8: Decay (r) values for state

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   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |k |Q0 |Q1 |Q2 |Q3 |Q4 |Q5 |Q6 |Q7 |Q8 |Q9 |Q10|Q11|Q12|Q13|Q14|Q15|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |0 |40 |45 |52 |59 |67 |75 |84 |95 |105|115|124|132|139|153|167|182|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |1 |24 |28 |32 |37 |43 |49 |56 |63 |72 |80 |90 |100|110|119|128|142|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |2 |1  |2  |2  |2  |2  |3  |4  |5  |6  |7  |9  |11 |13 |16 |19 |23 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |3 |35 |41 |48 |56 |65 |75 |85 |97 |109|124|139|153|168|183|197|210|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |4 |45 |50 |56 |64 |72 |81 |90 |101|110|118|125|132|139|155|171|188|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |5 |15 |18 |21 |24 |29 |33 |39 |45 |52 |60 |69 |78 |88 |98 |108|119|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |6 |47 |54 |62 |70 |79 |89 |99 |110|119|126|127|136|150|167|183|200|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |7 |44 |49 |54 |60 |67 |74 |82 |90 |95 |97 |91 |99 |107|121|135|151|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |8 |15 |17 |20 |23 |27 |31 |35 |40 |46 |53 |61 |70 |78 |88 |96 |109|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |9 |58 |65 |73 |82 |92 |102|112|125|136|146|160|176|193|209|226|251|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |10|252|253|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|255|189|93 |72 |83 |96 |110|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |11|7  |8  |9  |11 |13 |15 |18 |21 |24 |29 |33 |39 |46 |53 |60 |69 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |12|2  |3  |3  |4  |4  |5  |6  |7  |9  |11 |13 |15 |17 |21 |24 |29 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |13|1  |1  |1  |2  |2  |2  |3  |4  |4  |5  |6  |7  |8  |10 |12 |14 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |14|25 |28 |33 |39 |45 |52 |60 |70 |79 |89 |98 |106|114|128|142|157|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |15|56 |64 |73 |83 |93 |105|116|128|135|131|142|155|168|185|201|218|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |16|53 |61 |69 |78 |88 |98 |109|116|121|131|145|159|172|188|204|220|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |17|17 |21 |25 |31 |39 |45 |52 |58 |65 |74 |84 |94 |105|116|128|139|
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+
   |18|230|235|240|246|250|252|254|251|235|129|50 |39 |36 |43 |51 |60 |
   +==+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+===+

                      Table 9: P(0) values for state

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2.2.4.  Vocoder

   A vocoder is needed to turn the acoustic features into actual speech
   to fill in the audio for any missing packets.  Although the decoder
   is not normative, certain properties are needed for DRED to function
   adequately.  First, the vocoder SHOULD be able to start synthesizing
   speech by continuing an existing waveform, reducing the artifacts
   caused at the beginning of a lost packet.  If such property cannot be
   achieved, then the implementation SHOULD at least make an attempt to
   synchronize the phase of the synthesized speech with the last
   received speech, and attempt some form of blending, e.g. by splicing
   the signals in the LPC residual domain.

   A second important property of the vocoder is to not rely on more
   than one feature vector of look-ahead.  To synthesize speech between
   time t-10ms and t, the vocoder SHOULD NOT rely on acoustic features
   centered beyond t+5ms (i.e. covering t-5ms to t+15ms).  The vocoder
   MAY use more look-ahead when it is available, but there are cases
   (e.g. last lost packet) where the amount of acoustic feature vectors
   will be limited.  For frames sizes less than 20 ms, the decoder
   SHOULD be prelated to deal with having less than one feature vector
   of look-ahead.

3.  DRED Extension Format

   We use the Opus extension mechanism [opus-extension] to add deep
   redundancy within the padding of an Opus packet.  We use the
   extension ID 32, which means that the L flag signals whether a length
   code is included.  In this document, we define only the extension
   payload.  [Note: until adoption by the IETF, experimental
   implementations of DRED MUST use experiment extension ID 126 to avoid
   causing interoperability problems]

   The principles behind the DRED mechanism defined in this extension
   are explained in [dred-paper].  All the data in the extension payload
   is encoded using the Opus entropy coder defined in Section 4.1 of
   [RFC6716].  Since some of the fields at the beginning of the payload
   are encoded with flat binary probabilities, they can still be
   interpreted as bits.

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   The extension starts with a 4-bit initial quantizer field (Q0)
   ranging from 0 to 15.  That quantizer is used on the most recent
   frame encoded and is followed by the 3-bit quantizer slope dQ.  The
   3-bit dQ index selects from the following values: [0, 1/8, 3/16, 1/4,
   3/8, 1/2, 3/4, 1] quantizer step per frame.  The quantizer for frame
   k is thus given by: q=min(Qmax, round(Q0 + dQ_table[dQ] * k)), where
   Qmax is the maximum quantizer allowed.  For example, using Q0=5 and
   dQ=2 (3/16), frame k=20 would use a quantizer of round(5 + 3/16 * k)
   = 9.

   We then have one bit (X) that flags whether an extended offset is
   used.  If X=0, then a 5-bit offset indicator follows.  The offset is
   a positive integer in units of 2.5 ms.  It indicates the time of the
   last sample analysed for the transmitted features in the packet,
   measured from 40ms after the first sample in the Opus frame that
   contains the extension data.

   If X=1, then we have an extended offset field, with an additional 8
   bits to signal the offset.  This makes it possible to signal a
   maximum offset of (2^13-1)*2.5ms, or approximately 20.5 seconds.

   If Q0<14 and dQ!=0, then the offset is followed by the range-coded
   Qmax parameter.  The probability of Qmax=15 is set to 1/2 (one bit is
   used), whereas other possible values (Q0 < Qmax < 15) are coded with
   a flat probability distribution.  The pdf for Qmax is {nval, 1, 1,
   ...}/(2*nval), where there are nval=14-Q0 ones.  The Qmax=15 symbol
   is first, followed by other values in ascending order, starting from
   Qmax=Q0+1.

   The compressed redundancy information consists of an initial state
   coded, followed by a sequence of 40-ms latent vectors.  Both the
   initial state and the latent vectors are entropy-coded using a
   Laplace distribution.  The number of 40-ms DRED latent vectors is not
   coded explicitly.  Instead, the decoder keeps decoding them until it
   runs out of bits.  More specifically, the decoder MUST NOT decode
   blocks when fewer than 8 bits remain in the DRED payload.  There is
   no arbitrary limit on the number of vectors that can be coded in a
   packet, but the authors do not believe that using more than a few
   seconds of redundancy is likely to be useful.  Also, decoders MAY
   ignore any redundancy data beyond a certain amount.

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       0                   1                   2                   3
       0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |  Q0   |  dQ |X| (Ext. offset) | Offset  |Qmax | Initial state |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+               +
      :                                                               :
      +            ...                +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+
      |                               |  Latent vectors 0,            |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+                               +
      |  latent vector 1, ...                                         |
      :                                                               :
      +                                                     +-+-+-+-+-|
      |                            Latent vector n-1        | unused  |
      +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+

                        Figure 3: Extension framing

3.1.  Latent decoding

   Since the DRED decoder is normative, we describe DRED from the
   decoder perspective, but the encoder is expected to have the
   corresponding behavior.  DRED uses the same range coder as the rest
   of Opus, as described in Section 4.1 of [RFC6716].  Because the non-
   entropy-coded bits (Q0, dQ, ...) do not amount to an integer number
   of bytes, it is simpler to code them using the range coder.  The
   result is the same for those bits, but it ensures that the complete
   DRED payload is an integer number of bytes (which is important to
   handle the end condition).

   The initial state and latent vectors are handled in the same way,
   both coded one dimension at a time.  For each dimension, the decoder
   uses the quantization tables to determine the _r_ and _p0_
   parameters.  If r=0 or p0=255 for the current symbols and quantizer,
   then no symbol is decoded and the decoded quantized value is 0.
   Otherwise, decoding proceeds as follows.

   The first symbol decoded determines whether the quantized index is
   zero, positive, or negative (in that order).  The decoder uses the
   pdf {2*p0_{i,q}, 256-p0_{i,q}, 256-p0_{i,q}}/512.  If the value is
   non-zero, a second symbol is decoded.  We start by generating an
   "inverse cdf" in Q15:

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                 / 32768                                , if i < 0
                 |
                 | MAX(7, 128*r_{i,q})                  , if i = 0
       icdf(i) = <
                 | MAX(7-i, (icdf[i-1]*r_{i,q})//32768) , if 0 < i < 7
                 |
                 \ 0                                    , i>= 7

   where // denotes the truncating integer division.  The pdf is then
   given by pdf[i] = icdf[i-1]-icdf[i].  If the decoded symbol equals 7,
   then another symbol is decoded and added to the 7 already decoded.
   The process is repeated until the decoded symbol is different from 7.
   At that point, the sign is applied and the decoded value is equal to
   quantized_index*256/s_{i,q}.

4.  IANA Considerations

   [Note: Until the IANA performs the actions described below,
   implementers should use 126 instead of 32 as the extension number.
   Moreover, the DRED payload temporarily uses a two-byte prefix for
   compatibility: a 'D' character, followed by a version number
   (currently 10).]

   This document assigns ID 32 to the "Opus Extension IDs" registry
   created in [opus-extension] to implement the proposed DRED extension.

4.1.  Opus Media Type Update

   This document updates the audio/opus media type registration
   [RFC7587] to add the following two optional parameters:

   ext32-dred-duration: Specifies the maximum amount of DRED information
   (in milliseconds) that the receiver can use.  The receiver MUST be
   able to handle any valid DRED duration even if it does not make use
   of it.  The sender MUST NOT send more than the specified amount of
   redundancy to avoid leaking information beyond what the receiver
   expects.

   sprop-ext32-dred-duration: Maximum amount of DRED information (in
   milliseconds) that the sender is likely to use.  The received MUST be
   able to handle any valid DRED duration even if it does not make use
   of it.  The sender MUST NOT send more than the specified amount of
   redundancy to avoid leaking information beyond what the receiver
   expects.

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4.2.  Mapping to SDP Parameters

   The media type parameters described above map to declarative SDP and
   SDP offer-answer in the same way as other optional parameters in
   [RFC7587].  Regardless of any a=fmtp SDP attribute specified, the
   receiver MUST be capable of receiving any signal.

5.  Security Considerations

   When using a Selective Forwarding Unit (SFU), it is possible for the
   DRED payload to include speech that would not otherwise have been
   transmitted.  For example, a new user joining may receive audio that
   was transmitted before them joining.  If such behavior is a security
   or confidentiality concern, then the SFU SHOULD use the ext32-dred-
   duration and sprop-ext32-dred-duration parameters to limit the amount
   of redundancy and/or temporarily drop DRED payloads when that could
   leak information.

   As is the case for any media codec, the decoder must be robust
   against malicious payloads.  Similarly, the encoder must also be
   robust to malicious audio input since the encoder input can often be
   controlled by an attacker.  That can happen through browser JS, echo,
   or when the encoder is on a gateway.

   DRED is designed to have a complexity that is independent of the
   signal characteristics.  However, there exist implementation details
   that can cause signal-dependent complexity changes.  One example is
   CPU treatement of denormals that can sometimes cause increased CPU
   load and could be triggered by malicious input.  For that reason, it
   is important to minimize such impact to reduce the impact of DOS
   attacks.  Similarly, since the encoding and decoding process can be
   computationally costly, devices must manage the complexity to avoid
   attacks that could trigger too much DRED encoding or decoding to be
   performed.

   The use of variable-bitrate (VBR) encoding in DRED poses a
   theoretical information leak threat [RFC6562], but that threat is
   believed to be significantly lower than that posed by VBR encoding in
   the main Opus payload.  Since this document provides a way to
   dymanically vary the amount of redundancy transmitted, it is also
   possible to reduce the overall VBR risk of Opus by using DRED as a
   way of making the total Opus payload constant (CBR) or nearly
   constant.

6.  References

6.1.  Normative References

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   [RFC2119]  Bradner, S., "Key words for use in RFCs to Indicate
              Requirement Levels", BCP 14, RFC 2119,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC2119, March 1997,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc2119>.

   [RFC7587]  Spittka, J., Vos, K., and JM. Valin, "RTP Payload Format
              for the Opus Speech and Audio Codec", RFC 7587,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC7587, June 2015,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc7587>.

   [RFC8174]  Leiba, B., "Ambiguity of Uppercase vs Lowercase in RFC
              2119 Key Words", BCP 14, RFC 8174, DOI 10.17487/RFC8174,
              May 2017, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc8174>.

   [RFC6716]  Valin, JM., Vos, K., and T. Terriberry, "Definition of the
              Opus Audio Codec", RFC 6716, DOI 10.17487/RFC6716,
              September 2012, <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6716>.

   [opus-extension]
              Terriberry, T.B. and J.-M. Valin, "Extension Formatting
              for the Opus Codec (draft-ietf-mlcodec-opus-extension)",
              October 2023.

6.2.  Informative References

   [RFC6562]  Perkins, C. and JM. Valin, "Guidelines for the Use of
              Variable Bit Rate Audio with Secure RTP", RFC 6562,
              DOI 10.17487/RFC6562, March 2012,
              <https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/rfc6562>.

   [dred-paper]
              Valin, J.-M., Buethe, J., and A. Mustafa, "Low-Bitrate
              Redundancy Coding of Speech Using a Rate-Distortion-
              Optimized Variational Autoencoder", 2023,
              <https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.04453>.

Authors' Addresses

   Jean-Marc Valin
   Google
   Canada
   Email: jeanmarcv@google.com

   Jan Buethe
   Xiph.Org Foundation
   Germany
   Email: jan.buethe@googlemail.com

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